WEBVTT 1 00:00:00.120 --> 00:00:03.240 This is Spacetime Series twenty nine, episode ninety three, for 2 00:00:03.399 --> 00:00:06.719 broadcast on the fifth of August twenty twenty six. Coming 3 00:00:06.799 --> 00:00:10.560 up on Space Time, the strongest evidence yet that Bettlegurs 4 00:00:10.640 --> 00:00:14.960 is not alone is the mighty Andromeda galaxy dying and 5 00:00:15.000 --> 00:00:18.719 the most volcanically active world in the Solar System. All 6 00:00:18.839 --> 00:00:21.519 that and more coming up on space Time. 7 00:00:22.800 --> 00:00:28.640 Welcome to space Time with Stuart Gary. 8 00:00:42.200 --> 00:00:46.520 Astronomers have finally demonstrated that the red supergiant star Bettlegurs 9 00:00:46.640 --> 00:00:49.640 has a binary companion star about two to three times 10 00:00:49.679 --> 00:00:52.600 the mass of our Sun. The findings, reported in the 11 00:00:52.640 --> 00:00:56.159 journal Astronomy in Astrophysics provides the strongest evidence yet that 12 00:00:56.200 --> 00:00:58.320 one of the biggest and brightest stars in the night 13 00:00:58.439 --> 00:01:02.039 sky as a faint Stella companion, Bettlegirls b orbiting the 14 00:01:02.039 --> 00:01:06.719 primary star located somewhere between five hundred and thirty and 15 00:01:06.760 --> 00:01:09.319 six hundred and forty three light years away. Bettle Girls 16 00:01:09.480 --> 00:01:11.920 is the brightest star in the constellation of Ryan the 17 00:01:12.000 --> 00:01:16.319 Hunter and represents the scorpion sting on Oryan's shoulder. It's 18 00:01:16.359 --> 00:01:18.599 the ninth brightest star in the night sky and one 19 00:01:18.640 --> 00:01:21.159 of the largest and most luminous stars visible with the 20 00:01:21.239 --> 00:01:25.439 unaided eye, commonly called beetlejuice. Don't say it three times. 21 00:01:25.640 --> 00:01:29.400 Its name has been tortured through centuries of mispronunciations. It 22 00:01:29.439 --> 00:01:32.359 originally started as ipdal Jaza, meaning the hand of the 23 00:01:32.359 --> 00:01:35.159 big Man in Arabic, big man being a ryon the hunter. 24 00:01:35.840 --> 00:01:38.959 Bettle Girls began its life around ten million years ago 25 00:01:39.000 --> 00:01:42.879 as a spectral type O B blue star. Calculations of 26 00:01:42.920 --> 00:01:46.040 Bettlegirls's mass range from slightly under ten to a little 27 00:01:46.040 --> 00:01:48.359 more than twenty times that of our Sun, with some 28 00:01:48.439 --> 00:01:51.760 one hundred thousand times the Sun's brightness and around eleven 29 00:01:51.799 --> 00:01:54.840 hundred times its diameter. In fact, if Bettle Girls were 30 00:01:54.840 --> 00:01:57.400 placed at the center of our solar system, its surface 31 00:01:57.400 --> 00:02:00.920 would extend almost as far out as Jupiter, thereby engulfing 32 00:02:00.959 --> 00:02:03.760 the orbits of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, and the main 33 00:02:03.799 --> 00:02:08.000 asteroid belt. Bettle Gurls is now a bloated old semiregular 34 00:02:08.120 --> 00:02:12.840 variable red supergiant. Red supergiants are the largest stars in 35 00:02:12.879 --> 00:02:15.960 the universe in terms of volume, although they're not necessarily 36 00:02:16.039 --> 00:02:20.360 the most massive luminous. After spending billions of years fusing 37 00:02:20.439 --> 00:02:23.560 hydrogen into helium in their cores, a star's core hydrogen 38 00:02:23.599 --> 00:02:27.159 supply eventually runs out, and the balancing act between nuclear 39 00:02:27.199 --> 00:02:31.080 fusion pushing out gravity pushing in stomps and gravity wins. 40 00:02:31.639 --> 00:02:34.080 The huge mass of the star crashing down on the 41 00:02:34.080 --> 00:02:38.120 core causes a dramatic increase in core pressure, consequently temperature 42 00:02:38.639 --> 00:02:41.439 that triggers helium in the core to flash, which causes 43 00:02:41.479 --> 00:02:44.759 the helium to start fusing into carbon and oxygen. At 44 00:02:44.759 --> 00:02:47.879 the same time, the hydrogen rich region around the stellar 45 00:02:47.919 --> 00:02:50.479 core has moved down towards the core into a region 46 00:02:50.479 --> 00:02:53.400 where temperatures and pressures are high enough for hydrogen fusion 47 00:02:53.439 --> 00:02:56.439 into helium to commence in the shell around the core. Meanwhile, 48 00:02:56.439 --> 00:02:59.879 the increasing core temperature results in increasing luminosity, and the 49 00:03:00.000 --> 00:03:03.639 resulting radiation pressure from shell burning causes the outer diffuse 50 00:03:03.719 --> 00:03:06.520 gaseous envelope of the star to expand to hundreds of 51 00:03:06.560 --> 00:03:10.840 times its previous radius. As the now bloated star's chromosphere 52 00:03:10.919 --> 00:03:13.599 or visible surface, moves further away from the core, it 53 00:03:13.719 --> 00:03:17.759 cools down, turning redder. Hence the star becomes a red giant. 54 00:03:18.520 --> 00:03:18.759 Sun. 55 00:03:18.919 --> 00:03:23.000 Like stars, eventually lose the outer envelope, which continues expanding outwards, 56 00:03:23.039 --> 00:03:27.360 forming a planetary nebula. This ultimately exposes the star's white 57 00:03:27.400 --> 00:03:30.439 hot stellar core as a white dwarf, which will slowly 58 00:03:30.520 --> 00:03:34.280 cool over the eons. However, stars with masses more than 59 00:03:34.280 --> 00:03:36.479 a round eight times that of our Sun experience a 60 00:03:36.560 --> 00:03:40.240 very different fate. Unlike the Sun, their fusion cycle doesn't 61 00:03:40.319 --> 00:03:43.400 end with helium fusing into carbon and oxygen. They've got 62 00:03:43.479 --> 00:03:45.759 enough mass to fuse carbon and oxygen in their core 63 00:03:45.800 --> 00:03:49.199 into progressively heavier and heavier elements, while shell burning around 64 00:03:49.240 --> 00:03:56.599 the core also fuses progressively heavier and heavier elements carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, sulfur, nickel, 65 00:03:56.680 --> 00:04:01.639 and eventually iron. These stars have become red super giants. Now, 66 00:04:01.719 --> 00:04:04.039 no matter how massive a star is, it can't fuse 67 00:04:04.080 --> 00:04:07.800 iron into heavier elements, and so once again gravity wins, 68 00:04:07.840 --> 00:04:10.439 causing the entire mass of the start to collapse down 69 00:04:10.439 --> 00:04:13.639 onto the core. The collapse is so powerful that the 70 00:04:13.719 --> 00:04:17.040 billions of tons of material causes a rebound, and the 71 00:04:17.079 --> 00:04:21.079 star explodes as a core collapse supernova so bright it 72 00:04:21.120 --> 00:04:25.199 briefly outshines an entire galaxy. The star eventually ends up 73 00:04:25.199 --> 00:04:27.959 as either a neutron star or an even stranger object 74 00:04:27.959 --> 00:04:31.920 called a black hole. Singularities of infinite density and zero volume. 75 00:04:31.959 --> 00:04:34.600 With the lures of physics a science understands them no 76 00:04:34.680 --> 00:04:38.720 longer apply, and this will be the fate of Bettle Girls. 77 00:04:39.160 --> 00:04:41.199 In fact, it could explode as a core collapse or 78 00:04:41.279 --> 00:04:44.720 type two supernova any day now, which in astronomical terms 79 00:04:44.800 --> 00:04:47.319 means it could be tomorrow or a million years from now. 80 00:04:47.800 --> 00:04:51.439 Whenever it happens. When it does explode, it'll temporarily outshine 81 00:04:51.480 --> 00:04:53.560 all the other stars in the galaxy, and it'll be 82 00:04:53.600 --> 00:04:57.040 clearly visible in the daytime sky here on Earth, and 83 00:04:57.040 --> 00:05:01.399 that'll be a fascinating experience. Star seen by humans to 84 00:05:01.399 --> 00:05:03.959 go super and ova in our galaxy was Tiger Star 85 00:05:04.040 --> 00:05:06.879 in the year fifteen seventy two, and that was before 86 00:05:06.920 --> 00:05:10.399 the invention of the telescope. This new study is lead 87 00:05:10.439 --> 00:05:14.040 author Miguel Montagas from the Paris Observatory, says astronomers of 88 00:05:14.079 --> 00:05:17.879 look for potential companions as a possible explanation for Bettelegirls's 89 00:05:18.000 --> 00:05:22.000 regular changes in brightness. Two studies published in twenty twenty 90 00:05:22.000 --> 00:05:24.759 four predicted that the companion would be furthest from Bettlegirls 91 00:05:24.759 --> 00:05:27.519 in December of that year, and hence easier to spot, 92 00:05:28.279 --> 00:05:31.800 so Montagas and colleagues used the European Southern Observatories very 93 00:05:31.879 --> 00:05:35.199 large telescope the VLT in December of twenty twenty four 94 00:05:35.279 --> 00:05:39.079 and spent several months observing the star, and eventually they 95 00:05:39.120 --> 00:05:42.800 obtained the clearest image ever of what likely is Bettelegirls By. 96 00:05:43.639 --> 00:05:46.600 Montager says he was concerned he didn't have the sensitivity 97 00:05:46.600 --> 00:05:49.279 in his instruments that detech Bettlegirls b because it was 98 00:05:49.319 --> 00:05:51.560 thought to be too similar to the Sun in brightness 99 00:05:51.600 --> 00:05:54.319 and so it would be obscured by the primary stars glare. 100 00:05:54.959 --> 00:05:56.480 But it turned out to be at least two to 101 00:05:56.560 --> 00:05:58.360 three times the mass of the Sun and so it 102 00:05:58.399 --> 00:06:01.040 could be directly imaged, meaning the light from the star 103 00:06:01.120 --> 00:06:04.680 itself was detected. While there has been some early evidence 104 00:06:04.720 --> 00:06:07.279 of the possible existence of a companion star, including a 105 00:06:07.319 --> 00:06:10.360 possible direct detection by the Gemini North telescope in Away, 106 00:06:10.639 --> 00:06:13.560 this is the strongest evidence for and the clearest image 107 00:06:13.600 --> 00:06:17.079 jet of Bettleghost be now to be certain the companion's 108 00:06:17.160 --> 00:06:19.279 really there, the authors still need to observe it in 109 00:06:19.319 --> 00:06:21.279 a year's time on the other side of the star, 110 00:06:21.680 --> 00:06:25.360 but Montegas believes this very little space left for doubt. 111 00:06:26.040 --> 00:06:28.600 A few years back, Bettlegoes was the subject of attention 112 00:06:28.639 --> 00:06:31.800 from astronomers around the world when it visibly started dimming. 113 00:06:32.439 --> 00:06:34.639 It quickly went from being the ninth brightest star in 114 00:06:34.680 --> 00:06:38.079 the sky being the twentieth brightest. As we mentioned earlier, 115 00:06:38.120 --> 00:06:40.879 as an evolved super giant star, Bettlegoes is expected to 116 00:06:40.920 --> 00:06:43.839 explode as a supernova any day now, and so that 117 00:06:43.920 --> 00:06:46.319 dimming led some to suspect that this could be what 118 00:06:46.439 --> 00:06:50.160 was about to happen, but observations by Montegas and colleagues 119 00:06:50.199 --> 00:06:53.319 eventually determined the star was simply being obscured by a 120 00:06:53.360 --> 00:06:57.519 cloud of dust. This is space time still to come. 121 00:06:58.000 --> 00:07:01.439 Is the mighty Andromeda galaxy dying and the most volcanically 122 00:07:01.480 --> 00:07:04.360 active world in our Solar System? All that and more 123 00:07:04.439 --> 00:07:16.600 still to come on space time. A new study has 124 00:07:16.639 --> 00:07:19.800 found that star formation appears to be winding down in 125 00:07:19.839 --> 00:07:24.000 the nearest big neighboring galaxy, Andromeda. The new findings reported 126 00:07:24.000 --> 00:07:27.600 in the Astrophysical Journal, based on observations by NASA's Hubble 127 00:07:27.600 --> 00:07:31.839 Space Telescope. Astronomer's study Andromeda because it provides them with 128 00:07:31.879 --> 00:07:35.399 an opportunity to examine its stellar populations in great detail, 129 00:07:35.600 --> 00:07:38.480 leading to a better understanding of the past of galaxies 130 00:07:38.519 --> 00:07:42.439 like our own. The Andromeda galaxy M thirty one is 131 00:07:42.480 --> 00:07:45.160 located about two and a half million light years away, 132 00:07:45.360 --> 00:07:48.439 and like our own Milky Way, it's a spiral galaxy. 133 00:07:49.079 --> 00:07:51.079 It's close enough and big enough to be seen with 134 00:07:51.120 --> 00:07:54.720 the unaided eye from dark skies. It's the largest member 135 00:07:54.720 --> 00:07:57.279 of our local galactic group, with around twice the diameter 136 00:07:57.319 --> 00:07:59.759 of our Milky Way, spanning some two hundred and twenty 137 00:07:59.800 --> 00:08:02.480 five thousand, two hundred and sixty thousand light years across. 138 00:08:02.600 --> 00:08:05.040 That compares to the Milky Ways diameter of between one 139 00:08:05.079 --> 00:08:08.319 hundred thousand and one hundred and twenty thousand light years. However, 140 00:08:08.399 --> 00:08:11.959 astronomers now suspect the two galaxies probably have similar masses, 141 00:08:12.040 --> 00:08:14.680 with both weighing roughly eight hundred billion to one point 142 00:08:14.720 --> 00:08:18.079 five trillion times a mass of our Sun. The new 143 00:08:18.120 --> 00:08:22.120 observations indicate star formation in Andromeda has undergone a five 144 00:08:22.199 --> 00:08:25.000 hundred million year decline, with an even steeper drop in 145 00:08:25.040 --> 00:08:27.959 the last forty million years. The findings are based on 146 00:08:28.079 --> 00:08:32.159 data from two Hubble surveys, the panchromatic Hubble Andromeda Treasury 147 00:08:32.240 --> 00:08:36.080 and the pan chromatic Hubble Andromeda Southern treasury. Together, they've 148 00:08:36.080 --> 00:08:39.480 mapped two thirds of Andromeda's disc in ultra sharp detail. 149 00:08:40.120 --> 00:08:42.639 In total, the author has measured about two hundred million 150 00:08:42.679 --> 00:08:45.960 individual stars across the galaxy, giving them a detailed picture 151 00:08:46.000 --> 00:08:50.279 of andromedais past activity. One of the studies authors, Ben 152 00:08:50.320 --> 00:08:53.399 Williams from the University of Washington, says astronomers need to 153 00:08:53.399 --> 00:08:56.480 measure the individual stars because they're the fossil record of 154 00:08:56.519 --> 00:09:00.039 the galaxy's formation, and Hubble is the only telescope that 155 00:09:00.080 --> 00:09:02.799 can provide high enough spatial resolution over a large enough 156 00:09:02.840 --> 00:09:05.600 area to be able to do that. In Andromeda. The 157 00:09:05.679 --> 00:09:09.120 key is that massive stars are bluer and shorter lived, 158 00:09:09.240 --> 00:09:12.279 or less massive stars are redder and longer lived. As 159 00:09:12.320 --> 00:09:15.679 a result, areas that have experienced recent star formation tend 160 00:09:15.759 --> 00:09:18.440 to have a larger fraction of blue stars, or areas 161 00:09:18.440 --> 00:09:21.759 with less recent star formation typically have a reader population. 162 00:09:22.440 --> 00:09:26.559 So Williams and colleagues divided Andromeda's images into thousands of squares, 163 00:09:26.679 --> 00:09:29.840 each spanning roughly three hundred light years per side. They 164 00:09:29.919 --> 00:09:32.559 determine the history of star formation within each pixel in 165 00:09:32.639 --> 00:09:35.320 order to gain a comprehensive view of the galaxy's past. 166 00:09:36.000 --> 00:09:39.480 Previous research showed that the Andromeda galaxy experienced a dramatic 167 00:09:39.519 --> 00:09:42.600 burst of star formation around two billion years ago that 168 00:09:42.799 --> 00:09:45.000 was likely due to a past interaction or merger with 169 00:09:45.039 --> 00:09:49.720 another galaxy, but since then star formation has steadily declined. 170 00:09:50.320 --> 00:09:53.600 Astronomers measure the rate of star formation in terms of mass, 171 00:09:53.679 --> 00:09:56.279 or the amount of gas and dust converted into stars 172 00:09:56.279 --> 00:10:00.000 every year. The authors calculated that five hundred million years 173 00:10:00.039 --> 00:10:02.559 years ago, Andromeda form stars at a rate of about 174 00:10:02.559 --> 00:10:05.200 one solar mass per year. That's about the same as 175 00:10:05.200 --> 00:10:09.279 the Milky Way today. However, formation rate dropped in Andromeda 176 00:10:09.320 --> 00:10:11.639 to about half of that figure by about forty million 177 00:10:11.679 --> 00:10:14.720 years ago. The current rate is now plummeted even further, 178 00:10:14.879 --> 00:10:16.679 to just a fifth of the mass of our Sun 179 00:10:16.720 --> 00:10:21.000 per year. They also examined whether that decline was consistent 180 00:10:21.039 --> 00:10:25.000 across the entire galaxy, were just concentrated in certain specific areas, 181 00:10:25.360 --> 00:10:27.919 and they found that much of the recent star formation 182 00:10:28.200 --> 00:10:31.120 occurred in a start forming ring located around thirty two 183 00:10:31.240 --> 00:10:34.679 thousand lay years from the galaxy center. As a result, 184 00:10:34.799 --> 00:10:37.240 much of the decline they measured was driven by decreasing 185 00:10:37.240 --> 00:10:40.600 activity within that ring, rather than being the result of 186 00:10:40.679 --> 00:10:43.480 reduced material from which new stars can form. The authors 187 00:10:43.480 --> 00:10:45.679 think the declines are more likely to be a natural 188 00:10:45.720 --> 00:10:49.799 winding down from its previous, more active state. Williams and 189 00:10:49.799 --> 00:10:52.960 colleagues also investigated whether there was any connection between the 190 00:10:53.039 --> 00:10:56.320 decreasing activity and Andromeda. At its proximity to the satellite 191 00:10:56.360 --> 00:11:00.559 galaxy Messia thirty two. M thirty two separated from Andromeda 192 00:11:00.600 --> 00:11:02.879 by about sixteen thousand light years in the plane of 193 00:11:02.879 --> 00:11:06.519 the sky. However, it's three D location in space is uncertain. 194 00:11:07.080 --> 00:11:10.039 As a result, astronomers are unsure if or when it 195 00:11:10.120 --> 00:11:13.879 might have interacted with Andromeda in the past. Survey data 196 00:11:13.879 --> 00:11:17.080 from the panchromatic hubble Andromeda Southern Treasury allowed the authors 197 00:11:17.159 --> 00:11:19.559 to study the history of star formation and Andromeda in 198 00:11:19.559 --> 00:11:21.879 and near M thirty two, and they found this area 199 00:11:21.919 --> 00:11:25.440 showed signs of decreased star formation compared to other regions. 200 00:11:26.000 --> 00:11:28.840 The timing of this decrease, which the study finance began 201 00:11:28.960 --> 00:11:31.919 roughly sixty million years ago, could help constrain when M 202 00:11:31.960 --> 00:11:35.399 thirty two interacted with Andromeda's disc The authors say they 203 00:11:35.440 --> 00:11:38.679 can't explicitly say they're seeing a decrease in star formation 204 00:11:38.840 --> 00:11:41.679 because of M thirty two, but hey, it's right there, 205 00:11:41.879 --> 00:11:45.360 and it's definitely the most likely suspect. This is space 206 00:11:45.440 --> 00:11:48.759 time still to come, the most volcanically active word in 207 00:11:48.799 --> 00:11:52.120 the Solar System, and later in the science report, a 208 00:11:52.159 --> 00:11:54.480 new study wards that mining is now a threat and 209 00:11:54.519 --> 00:11:57.799 more than twelve thousand species across the planet. All that 210 00:11:57.919 --> 00:12:17.279 and more still to come on space time. NASA's Guno 211 00:12:17.399 --> 00:12:20.960 spacecraft has provided the first measurements of the temperature below 212 00:12:21.039 --> 00:12:25.480 the surface of Jupiter's volcanic moon Io. The findings, reported 213 00:12:25.519 --> 00:12:28.960 in the Journal of Geophysical Research Planets, shows significant heating 214 00:12:29.039 --> 00:12:32.240 within the shallow subsurface of what is the most volcanically 215 00:12:32.279 --> 00:12:36.519 active world in our Solar System, collected during two close flybys. 216 00:12:36.600 --> 00:12:39.759 The data also shows that most of Io's surface is 217 00:12:39.799 --> 00:12:43.639 remarkably smooth and composed of material with very low density. 218 00:12:44.600 --> 00:12:49.279 Io's extreme volcanism is powered by tidal heating. See the 219 00:12:49.320 --> 00:12:53.279 Moon's constantly being stretched and squeezed by the immense gravity 220 00:12:53.320 --> 00:12:55.960 of its host planet Jupiter as it travels in its 221 00:12:55.960 --> 00:12:59.759 slightly elliptical orbit around the gas giant, then the refurther 222 00:12:59.759 --> 00:13:03.639 grap vitational tugs during its journey from its sister Jovian moons. 223 00:13:04.279 --> 00:13:08.320 Io is the innermost and smallest ob Jubiter's for Galilean moons, 224 00:13:08.639 --> 00:13:11.360 but the three thousand, six hundred and sixty kilometer wide 225 00:13:11.360 --> 00:13:15.279 world is still slightly larger than the Earth's moon. Until now, 226 00:13:15.440 --> 00:13:19.159 virtually everything astronomers know about Io's tidal heating has come 227 00:13:19.200 --> 00:13:22.679 from infrared observations, which can really only sense the temperature 228 00:13:22.679 --> 00:13:25.960 of the surface. But these latest findings are based on 229 00:13:26.120 --> 00:13:31.679 data collected by Juno's microwave radiometer. JUNO Principal investigator Scott 230 00:13:31.720 --> 00:13:35.440 Bolton from the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio, Texas, 231 00:13:35.480 --> 00:13:38.480 says the surprising discovery that we can see below the 232 00:13:38.559 --> 00:13:42.559 rocky Moon's surface as important implications for studding volcanoes here 233 00:13:42.600 --> 00:13:46.279 on Earth. He says June's taught scientists that if they 234 00:13:46.320 --> 00:13:49.639 look with a microwave radiometer instrument near a volcano on Earth, 235 00:13:49.679 --> 00:13:53.519 they might see similar signatures in the subsurface temperature gradients, 236 00:13:53.559 --> 00:13:58.279 providing new information and our Earth volcanoes work. Juno's microwave 237 00:13:58.360 --> 00:14:01.799 radiometer was designed by Bob to peer beneath Jupiter's cloud 238 00:14:01.879 --> 00:14:05.399 tops in order to investigate the dynamics and composition the 239 00:14:05.399 --> 00:14:10.000 gas giants deep atmosphere. Its six microwave antennas act as 240 00:14:10.039 --> 00:14:13.960 a single instrument simultaneously detecting microwaves at a range of 241 00:14:14.000 --> 00:14:18.639 different wavelengths. During Jurney's extended phase, It's provided scientists an 242 00:14:18.639 --> 00:14:22.759 opportunity observe three of the planets, so called Galilean moons, 243 00:14:22.919 --> 00:14:26.519 gain he made, Europa and Io. So far, only Callisto 244 00:14:26.559 --> 00:14:29.600 has been left out of the study. They're called Galilean 245 00:14:29.639 --> 00:14:33.039 moons because they were first observed by Galileo Galilee when 246 00:14:33.080 --> 00:14:37.039 he turned his telescope onto the orb of Jupiter. Seeing 247 00:14:37.080 --> 00:14:41.080 the Moon's orbiting around Jupiter, Galileo realized that the Earth 248 00:14:41.240 --> 00:14:43.480 and all the other planets in the Solar System were 249 00:14:43.519 --> 00:14:47.039 simply doing the same thing around the Sun, a discovery 250 00:14:47.080 --> 00:14:49.440 which ended with him not only being sentenced to house 251 00:14:49.519 --> 00:14:51.919 detention by the Catholic Church for the rest of his life, 252 00:14:52.000 --> 00:14:54.519 but he was also forced to renounce his discovery on 253 00:14:54.639 --> 00:14:59.279 pain of death. Yet even then, under his breath he whispered, 254 00:14:59.399 --> 00:15:02.919 and yet it moves, referring to Earth orbiting around the 255 00:15:03.000 --> 00:15:05.840 Sun rather than the Earth's centric view of the universe 256 00:15:06.039 --> 00:15:10.120 favored by the Catholic Church at the time. Bolton says 257 00:15:10.200 --> 00:15:14.519 each wavelength within the microwave radiometer explores different depths providing 258 00:15:14.559 --> 00:15:16.720 a new way to characterize the deb atmosphere of the 259 00:15:16.759 --> 00:15:19.799 giant planets, as well as the subsurface crusts of icy 260 00:15:19.840 --> 00:15:24.360 and rocky moons. At Gannymeat in Europa, Geno explored tens 261 00:15:24.440 --> 00:15:27.679 of kilometers below the surface, assuming that ice shells were 262 00:15:27.679 --> 00:15:31.320 mostly pure water, but the ability to probe the volcanic 263 00:15:31.399 --> 00:15:35.399 rock on Io was an unexpected discovery. During flybys on 264 00:15:35.440 --> 00:15:38.519 de seven thirtieth in twenty twenty three and February thirty, 265 00:15:38.600 --> 00:15:42.000 twenty twenty four, the Genos spacecraft came within fifteen hundred 266 00:15:42.039 --> 00:15:43.639 kilometers of iOS surface. 267 00:15:44.360 --> 00:15:45.759 Bolton and colleagues. 268 00:15:45.360 --> 00:15:48.360 Found that everywhere they looked, they saw temperature increases of 269 00:15:48.440 --> 00:15:52.440 roughly five degrees celsius every few centimeters, a fast steeper 270 00:15:52.440 --> 00:15:56.440 gradient and solar heating alone can explain, and that suggests 271 00:15:56.480 --> 00:16:00.720 only two likely explanations. Either the heat is right steadily 272 00:16:00.720 --> 00:16:03.919 through a conductive crust, or the signal could be coming 273 00:16:03.919 --> 00:16:07.440 from cooling lava flows cap by roughly ten meters of 274 00:16:07.519 --> 00:16:10.960 solidified crust, covering about ten percent of the Moon's surface 275 00:16:11.000 --> 00:16:15.000 at any given time. Bolton says Io provides a unique 276 00:16:15.039 --> 00:16:18.039 window matter how tidal heating works throughout the cosmos a 277 00:16:18.120 --> 00:16:21.600 fundamental process providing energy and heat to worlds that could 278 00:16:21.639 --> 00:16:25.559 be orbiting far from the hearth star. This process not 279 00:16:25.639 --> 00:16:28.200 only it creates the most volcanically active world in our 280 00:16:28.240 --> 00:16:31.720 Solar system, but it also fuels the subsurface oceans on 281 00:16:31.759 --> 00:16:36.240 the ice moons of the giant planets like Europa, Enceladus. 282 00:16:35.559 --> 00:16:37.480 And Ganny Made. 283 00:16:37.639 --> 00:16:40.879 Another major insight gained from Juno's two flybys of Io 284 00:16:41.120 --> 00:16:44.679 is just how smooth the little world is. For these findings, 285 00:16:44.799 --> 00:16:47.320 the Moon was known for its tall mountains, but the 286 00:16:47.360 --> 00:16:50.840 new observations indicate that apart from this visible topography, the 287 00:16:50.919 --> 00:16:55.120 surface features expansive smooth patches that can stretch for hundreds 288 00:16:55.120 --> 00:16:59.600 of kilometers or more. Because Uno flew by overlapping regions 289 00:16:59.600 --> 00:17:01.799 of Io at different angles, you alsos are able to 290 00:17:01.840 --> 00:17:05.240 map just how the surface reflects marcrowaves, showing them just 291 00:17:05.319 --> 00:17:08.839 how flat this distant world really is. But of course 292 00:17:08.960 --> 00:17:12.839 Io has an ever changing geography. Living on Io, you 293 00:17:12.880 --> 00:17:16.440 wouldn't have weather reports, you'd have geological reports, with lava 294 00:17:16.559 --> 00:17:19.400 lakes forming in the north, mountain building in the south, 295 00:17:19.920 --> 00:17:24.200 ground solidification in the west. This report on Geno's mission 296 00:17:24.200 --> 00:17:25.960 to Jupiter comes from NESTV. 297 00:17:26.440 --> 00:17:30.559 Humanity has had its eyes on Jupiter for surgeries. First 298 00:17:30.640 --> 00:17:35.039 telescopes and in recent decades, eight deep space pros were 299 00:17:35.119 --> 00:17:38.160 used to examine the largest planet in the Solar System. 300 00:17:38.640 --> 00:17:40.599 Equipped with unique sensors. 301 00:17:40.480 --> 00:17:43.880 JUNO looked deeper into the planet's structure than ever before 302 00:17:44.119 --> 00:17:47.359 to find out the answers to basic questions about Jupiter's 303 00:17:47.359 --> 00:17:49.039 makeup and how it formed. 304 00:17:50.119 --> 00:17:55.200 Juno's looking for how Jupiter formed and really how planets 305 00:17:55.200 --> 00:17:58.039 are made in general. We're very much looking for the 306 00:17:58.119 --> 00:18:01.839 recipe for planets. The special thing about JUNO is is 307 00:18:01.920 --> 00:18:04.359 we're really looking at one of the first steps, the 308 00:18:04.440 --> 00:18:08.160 earliest time in our Solar System's history, right after the 309 00:18:08.200 --> 00:18:11.880 Sun formed. What happened that allowed the planets to form? 310 00:18:11.960 --> 00:18:15.599 And why are the planets slightly different composition than the Sun. 311 00:18:16.599 --> 00:18:19.400 Jupiter is so far away from Earth, then, even when 312 00:18:19.440 --> 00:18:22.279 it's at as closest to us, it will still take 313 00:18:22.319 --> 00:18:25.240 a radio signal moving at the speed of light about 314 00:18:25.240 --> 00:18:27.240 thirty four minutes to cross the distance. 315 00:18:28.279 --> 00:18:36.279 Pretty challenging missions, pretty challenging payloads. I'd say it's pretty robust. 316 00:18:36.359 --> 00:18:39.119 So it's those kind of challenges with making sure you 317 00:18:39.240 --> 00:18:42.880 do all the little things necessary to maximize the opportunities 318 00:18:42.880 --> 00:18:43.599 that you get. 319 00:18:43.880 --> 00:18:48.200 Aside from distance, Jupiter offers unique challenges to a spacecraft, 320 00:18:48.480 --> 00:18:51.640 such as a radiation field rivaled in intensity only by 321 00:18:51.680 --> 00:18:52.119 the Sun. 322 00:18:53.240 --> 00:18:55.519 We have a box in the middle of the spacecraft 323 00:18:55.519 --> 00:18:58.599 that we call a vault, and it's made out of titanium, 324 00:18:58.960 --> 00:19:02.880 and that shield all the electronics from these hazardous radiation 325 00:19:03.720 --> 00:19:06.440 and we're very much an armoured tank going to Jupiter. 326 00:19:07.599 --> 00:19:10.480 Justice JUNO is building on the knowledge gained with past 327 00:19:10.559 --> 00:19:14.720 missions to Jupiter. Future missions will build on Juno's findings. 328 00:19:15.680 --> 00:19:17.799 If we could start to understand the role that Jupiter 329 00:19:17.839 --> 00:19:21.079 played and how the planet formed and how that eventually 330 00:19:21.119 --> 00:19:24.440 governed the creation of all the other planets and Earth 331 00:19:24.480 --> 00:19:27.839 and maybe even life itself, then we know a little 332 00:19:27.880 --> 00:19:31.599 bit about how to look for other Earth like planets 333 00:19:31.599 --> 00:19:35.640 maybe orbiting other stars, and how common those might be, 334 00:19:36.119 --> 00:19:38.680 and the roles that those giant planets that we see 335 00:19:38.960 --> 00:19:40.240 orbiting the other stars play. 336 00:19:41.240 --> 00:19:44.559 Really, all these missions that LSPs involved in, the NASSAS 337 00:19:44.599 --> 00:19:46.920 involved in are all precursors to the bigger picture of 338 00:19:46.960 --> 00:19:51.599 getting humans out beyond low Orth orbit to Mars, to 339 00:19:52.039 --> 00:19:53.559 an asteroid and be honest. 340 00:19:53.359 --> 00:19:55.960 And in that report, from MESSATV. We heard from JUNA 341 00:19:56.079 --> 00:20:01.240 Principal investigator Scott Bolton from the Southwest Research Institutions, San Antonio, Texas, 342 00:20:01.279 --> 00:20:04.160 as well as GUNO Launch Director Omar Bayes and JUNO 343 00:20:04.200 --> 00:20:07.079 Mission Manager John Culvert, both from NASSA. 344 00:20:07.640 --> 00:20:25.440 This is Space Time and time out to. 345 00:20:25.440 --> 00:20:27.359 Take another brief look at some of the other stories 346 00:20:27.400 --> 00:20:30.200 making US and science this week with a science report. 347 00:20:31.039 --> 00:20:33.480 A new study warns that mining is now a threat 348 00:20:33.519 --> 00:20:36.440 to more than twelve thousand species across the planet, which 349 00:20:36.440 --> 00:20:39.680 includes almost six thousand that are already listed is threatened. 350 00:20:40.240 --> 00:20:43.920 The findings, published in the journal Cille Report Sustainability, overlaid 351 00:20:44.000 --> 00:20:46.880 the space where mining occurs across the planet and noted 352 00:20:46.880 --> 00:20:49.880 that twenty eight percent of the ranges of threatened species 353 00:20:49.960 --> 00:20:53.400 overlap with those areas that are being mined. The authors 354 00:20:53.400 --> 00:20:55.960 say at least one hundred species have some seventy five 355 00:20:56.000 --> 00:20:59.279 percent of their ranges overlapping in these areas. That's despite 356 00:20:59.359 --> 00:21:02.000 mining not being recognized as a threat by the International 357 00:21:02.160 --> 00:21:05.640 Union for Conservation of Nature. They also found that future 358 00:21:05.640 --> 00:21:09.200 planned mining sites could expose over three thousand threatened species 359 00:21:09.200 --> 00:21:12.119 to the risks involved around mining sites, eighty three percent 360 00:21:12.160 --> 00:21:16.799 of which don't have a mining related threat designation. A 361 00:21:16.839 --> 00:21:20.039 new study claims taking fecal capsules could help people with 362 00:21:20.119 --> 00:21:23.039 insomnia get a good night's sleep. A report in the 363 00:21:23.119 --> 00:21:26.279 Journal of Internal Medicine claims a trial involving forty people 364 00:21:26.279 --> 00:21:29.359 who had chronic insomnia disorder were given either a placebo 365 00:21:29.519 --> 00:21:32.279 or an antibiotic trip and to clear their gut microbiome, 366 00:21:32.359 --> 00:21:36.160 and then fecal pills to recolonize their intestinal tract. After 367 00:21:36.200 --> 00:21:39.359 a month, the participants receiving the fecal pills showed greatly 368 00:21:39.400 --> 00:21:43.039 improved sleeping patterns compared to those on the placebo. The 369 00:21:43.079 --> 00:21:46.200 subjects taking the pills also reported feeling that their sleep 370 00:21:46.240 --> 00:21:49.960 had improved for up to six months after taking them. 371 00:21:50.400 --> 00:21:50.640 Well. 372 00:21:50.799 --> 00:21:54.640 Despite Australia's air being relatively unpolluted compared to other parts 373 00:21:54.680 --> 00:21:56.559 of the world, a new study is found that there's 374 00:21:56.559 --> 00:21:58.880 a clear link in the Great Southern Land between air 375 00:21:58.880 --> 00:22:01.799 pollution exposure and the risk of ending up in hospital 376 00:22:01.880 --> 00:22:05.000 with lung and hard issues. The findings, reported in the 377 00:22:05.039 --> 00:22:08.279 journal Public Health Research and Practice, used national air pollution 378 00:22:08.519 --> 00:22:12.000 estimates from twenty sixteen and hospitalization data from one thy 379 00:22:12.079 --> 00:22:14.720 one hundred and fifty five Public Health areas between twenty 380 00:22:14.759 --> 00:22:18.200 sixteen and twenty seventeen, representing some twenty three million, two 381 00:22:18.279 --> 00:22:21.359 hundred and thirty six thousand and forty six people. The 382 00:22:21.400 --> 00:22:24.440 authors found higher exposure to pollution particles smaller than two 383 00:22:24.480 --> 00:22:28.440 point five nanometers together with nitrogen dioxide was consistently linked 384 00:22:28.440 --> 00:22:31.319 with increases and hospitalizations for these issues. 385 00:22:33.400 --> 00:22:34.400 A new study has. 386 00:22:34.359 --> 00:22:36.920 Found that people who spent an excessive amount of time 387 00:22:36.960 --> 00:22:40.440 online tend to be more stressed, have worse moods, and 388 00:22:40.599 --> 00:22:43.759 neglected other parts of their lives. A report in the 389 00:22:43.799 --> 00:22:46.720 General plus one monitored the daily Internet use of some 390 00:22:46.880 --> 00:22:50.440 nine hundred German adults for two weeks. The authors found 391 00:22:50.519 --> 00:22:54.759 temptation was the biggest thing pushing subjects to go online. However, 392 00:22:55.039 --> 00:22:59.119 although excessive Internet users had worse moods, spending time online 393 00:22:59.119 --> 00:23:04.200 didn't improve how they felt. Telstra, Australia's largest telco, is 394 00:23:04.240 --> 00:23:08.400 expanding its relationship with Elon Musk's Starling broadband satellite network. 395 00:23:09.079 --> 00:23:12.519 Right now, the starting constellation includes some teny four hundred 396 00:23:12.519 --> 00:23:15.680 and thirteen satellites in low Earth orbit, and Telstra wants 397 00:23:15.720 --> 00:23:18.440 to take advantage of that. With the details of the 398 00:23:18.480 --> 00:23:21.480 new Telstra Starlin deal We're joined by technology editor Alex 399 00:23:21.480 --> 00:23:24.000 saharov Royt from Tech Advice Start Life. 400 00:23:24.079 --> 00:23:26.880 Yeah, well the calling of the first for Australia satellite 401 00:23:26.880 --> 00:23:31.079