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Speaker 1: Chapter one, What is the mind? Psychology is generally considered

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to be the science of mind, although more properly it

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is the science of mental states, thoughts, feelings, and acts

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of volition. It was formerly the custom of writers on

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the subject of psychology to begin by an attempt to

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define and describe the nature of mind, before proceeding to

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a consideration of the subject of the various mental states

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and activities. But more recent authorities have rebelled against this demand,

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and have claimed that it is no more reasonable to

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hold that psychology should be held to an explanation of

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the ultimate nature of mind than it is that physical

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science beheld to an explanation of the ultimate nature of matter.

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The attempt to explain the ultimate nature of either is futile.

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No actual necessity exists for explanation in either case. Physics

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may explain the phenomena of matter, and psychology the phenomena

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of mind, without regard to the ultimate nature of the

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substance of either. The science of physics has progressed steadily

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during the past century, notwithstanding the fact that the theories

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regarding the ultimate nature of matter have been revolutionized during

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that period. The facts of the phenomena of matter remain,

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notwithstanding the change of theory regarding the nature of matter itself.

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Science demands and holds fast to facts, regarding theories as

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but working hypotheses. At the best. Someone has said that

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theories are but the bubbles with which the grown up

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children of science amuse themselves. Science holds several well supported,

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though opposing theories regarding the nature of electricity, But the

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facts of the phenomena of electricity and the application thereof

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are agreed upon by the disputing theorists. And so it

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is with psychology. The facts regarding mental states are agreed upon,

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and methods of developing mental powers are effectively employed, without

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regard to whether the mind is a product of the

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brain or the brain merely an organ of the mind.

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The fact that the brain and nervous system are employed

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in the phenomena of thought is conceded by all, and

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that is all that is necessary for a basis for

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the science of psychology. Disputes regarding the ultimate nature of

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mind are now generally passed over to the philosophers and metaphysicians,

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while psychology devotes its entire attention to studying the laws

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of mental activities and to discovering methods of mental development.

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Even philosophy is beginning to tire of the eternal why

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and is devoting its attention to the how phase of things.

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The pragmatic spirit has invaded the field of philosophy, expressing

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itself in the words a professor William James, who said,

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pragmatism the attitude of looking away from first things, principles, categories,

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supposed necessities, and of looking forward toward last things, fruits, consequences, facts.

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Modern psychology is essentially pragmatic in its treatment of the

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subject of the mind. Leaving the metaphysics the old arguments

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and disputes regarding the ultimate nature of mind, it bends

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all its energies upon discovering the laws of mental activities

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and states, and developing methods whereby the mind may be

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trained to perform better and more work, to conserve its energies,

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to concentrate its forces. To modern psychology, the mind is

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something to be used, not merely something about which to

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speculate and theorize. While the metaphysicians deplore this tendency, the

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practical people of the world rejoice. Mind defined mind is

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defined faculty or power, whereby thinking creatures feel, think, and will.

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This definition is inadequate and circular in nature. But this

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is unavoidable, for mind can be defined only in its

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own terms, and only by reference to its own processes. Mind,

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except in reference to its own activities, cannot be defined

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or conceived. It is known to itself only through its activities.

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Mind without mental states is a mere abstraction, a word

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without a corresponding mental image or concept. So William Hamilton

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expressed the matter as clearly as possible when he said,

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what we mean by mind is simply that which perceives, thinks, feels,

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wills and desires. Without the perceiving, thinking, feeling, willing, and desiring,

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it is impossible to form a clear conception or mental

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image of mind. Deprived of its phenomena, it becomes the

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merest abstraction. Think about that which thinks. Perhaps the simplest

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method of conveying the idea of the existence and nature

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of the mind is that attributed to a celebrated German

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teacher of psychology who was wont to begin his course

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by bidding his students think of something his desk, for example.

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Then he would say, now think of that which thinks

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about the desk. Then, after a pause, he would add,

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this thing which thinks about the desk, and about which

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you are now thinking, is the subject matter of our

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study of psychology. The professor could not have said more

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had he lectured for a month. Professor Gordy has well

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said on this point, the mind must either be that

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which thinks, feels, and wills, or it must be the thoughts, feelings,

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and acts of will of which we are conscious, mental facts.

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In one word, But what can we know about that

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which thinks, feels, and will rus and what can we

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find out about it? Where is it? You will probably

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say in the brain. But if you are speaking literally,

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if you say that it is in the brain as

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a pencil is in the pocket, then you must mean

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that it takes up room, that it occupies space, and

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that would make it very much like a material thing.

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In truth, the more carefully you consider it, the more

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plainly you will see what thinking men have known for

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a long time. That we do not know and cannot

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learn anything about the thing which thinks and feels and wills.

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It is beyond the range of human knowledge. The books

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which define psychology is the science of mind, have not

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a word to say about that which thinks and feels

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and wills. They are entirely taken up with these thoughts

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and feelings and acts of the will. Mental facts in

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a word, trying to tell us what they are, and

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to arrange them in class and tell us the circumstances

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or conditions under which they exist. It seems to me

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that it would be better to define psychology as the

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science of the experiences, phenomena, or facts of the mind, soul,

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or self. Of mental facts in a word, in view

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of the facts of the case, and following example of

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the best of the modern authorities, in this book, we

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shall lead the consideration of the question of the ultimate

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nature of mind to the metaphysicians, and shall confine ourselves

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to the mental facts, the laws governing them, and the

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best methods of governing and using them in the business

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of life. The classification and method of development to be

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followed in this book is as follows. One the mechanism

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of mental states, that is, the brain, nervous system, sense, organs,

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et cetera. Two the fact of consciousness and its plans.

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Three mental processes or faculties that is, one sensation and perception,

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two representation or imagination and memory. Three feeling or emotion.

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Four intellect or reason and understanding five will or volition.

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Mental states depend upon the physical mechanism for manifestation. Whatever

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may be the ultimate nature of mind, mental states, whatever

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their special character, will be found to fit into one

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of the above five general classes of mental activities. End

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of Chapter one, Chapter two. The mechanism of mental states.

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The mechanism of mental states. The mental machinery by means

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of which we feel, think, and will consists of the brain,

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nervous system, and the organs of sense. No matter what

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may be the real nature of the mind, no matter

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what may be the real nature of mind, no matter

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what may be the theory held regarding its activities, it

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must be admitted that the mind is dependent upon this

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mechanism for the manifestation of what we know as mental states.

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Wonderful as is the mind, it would seem to be

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dependent upon this physical mechanism for the expression of its activities.

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And this dependence is not upon the brain alone, but

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also upon the entire nervous system. The best authorities agree

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that the higher and more complex mental states are but

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an evolution of simple sensation, and that they are dependent

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upon sensation for their raw material of feeling and thought. Therefore,

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it is proper that we begin by a consideration of

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the machinery of sensation. This necessitates a previous consideration of

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the nerves. The nerves. The body is traversed by an

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intricate system of nerves, which has been likened to a

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great telegraph system. The nerves transmit sensations from the various

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parts of the body to the great receiving office of

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the brain. They also serve to transmit the motor impulses

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from the brain to the various parts of the body,

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which impulses result in motion of appropriate parts of the body.

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There are also other nerves with which we have no

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concern in this book, but which perform certain physiological functions,

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such as digestion, secretion, excretion, and circulation. Our chief concern

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at this point is with the sensory nerves. The sensory

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nerves convey the impressions of the outside world to the brain.

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The brain is the great central station of the sensory nerves,

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the latter having countless sending stations in all parts of

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the body, the wires terminating in the skin. When needs

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nervous terminal stations are irritated or excited, they send to

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the brain messages calling for attention. This is true not

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only the nerves of touch or feeling, but also of

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those concerned with the respective senses of sight, smell, taste,

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and hearing. In fact, the best authorities hold that all

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the five senses are but an evolution of the primary

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sense of touch or feeling, the sense of touch. The

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nerves of the sense of touch have their ending in

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the outer covering or skin of the body. They report

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contact with other physical objects. By means of these reports,

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we are aware not only of contact with the outside object,

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but also of many facts concerning the nature of that object,

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as for instance, its degree of hardness, roughness, etc. And

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its temperature. Some of these nerve ends are very sensitive,

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as for example, those of the tip of the tongue

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and finger ends, while others are comparative, relacking in sensitiveness,

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as for illustration, those of the back. Certain of these

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sensory nerves can find themselves reporting contact and degrees of pressure,

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while others concern themselves solely with reporting the degrees of

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temperature of the object with which their ends come in contact.

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Some of the latter respond to the higher degrees of heat,

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while others respond only to the lower degrees of cold.

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The nerves of certain parts of the body respond more

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readily and distinctly to temperature than do those of other parts.

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To illustrate, the nerves of the cheek are quite responsive

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to heat impressions. The sense of sight, the nerves of

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the sense of sight terminate in a complex optical apparatus,

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which in popular terminology is known as the eye. What

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is known as the retina is a very sensitive nervous

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membrane which lines the inner back part of the eye

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and in which the fibers of the optic nerve terminate.

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The optical instrument of the eye conveys the focused light

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vibrations to the nerves of the retina, from which the

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impulse is transmitted to the brain. But contrary to the

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popular notion, the nerves of the eye do not gage

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distances nor form inferences of any kind. That is distinctly

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the work of the mind. The simple oppice of the

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optical nerves consists in reporting color and degrees of intensity

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of the light waves. The sense of hearing, the nerves

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of the sense of hearing terminate in the inner part

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of the ear. The tympanum or ear drum, receives the

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sound vibrations entering the cavities of the ear and intensifying

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and adapting them. It passes them on to the ends

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of the auditory nerve in the internal ear, which conveys

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the sensation to the brain. The auditory nerve reports to

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the brain the degrees of pitch, intensity, quality, and harmony, respectively,

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of the sound waves reaching the tympanum. As is well known,

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there are certain vibrations of sound which are too low

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for the auditory nerve to register, and others too high

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for it to record. Both classes, however, capable of being

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recorded by scientific instruments. It is also regarded as certain

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that some of the lower animals are conscious of sound

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vibrations which are not registered by the human auditory nerves.

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The sense of smell. The nerves of the sense of

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smell terminate in the mucous membrane of the nostrils. In

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order that these nerves report the odour of outside objects,

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actual contact of minute particles of the object with the

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mucous membrane of the nostrils is necessary. This is possible

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only through the passage through which the nostrils of air

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containing these particles mere nearness to the nostril will not suffice.

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These particles are, for the most part, composed of tenuous gases.

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Certain substances affect the olfactory nerves much more than do others,

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the difference arising from the chemical composition of the substance.

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The olfactory nerves convey the report to the brain the

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sense of taste. The nerves of the sense of taste

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terminate in the tongue, or rather in the tiny cells

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of the tongue, which are called taste buds. Substances taken

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into the mouth chemically effect these tiny cells, and an

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impulse is transmitted to the gustatory nerves, which then report

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the sensation to the brain. The authorities claim that taste

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sensations may be reduced to five general classes, that is, sweet, bitter, sour, salty,

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and hot. There are certain nerve centers having important offices

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in the production and expression of mental states, located in

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the skull and in the spinal column, the brain and

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spinal cord, which we shall consider in the following chapter.

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End of chapter two, chapter three, the great nerve centers.

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The great nerve centers which play an important part in

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the production and expression of mental states are those of

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the brain and spinal cord, respectively. The spinal cord. The

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spinal cord is that cord or rope of nerve substance

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which is enclosed in the spinal column or backbone. It

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leaves the lower part of the skull and extends downwards

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in the interior of the spinal column for about eighteen inches.

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It is continuous with the brain, however, and it is

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difficult to determine where one begins and the other ends.

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It is composed of a mass of gray matter surrounded

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by a covering of white matter. From the spinal cord.

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Along its length emerge thirty one pairs of spinal nerves,

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which branch out to each side of the body and

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connect with the various smaller nerves extending to all parts

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of the system. The spinal cord is the great central

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cable of the nervous telegraphic system, and any injury too

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or abstruction of it cripples or paralyzes those portions of

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the body the nerves of which enter the spinal cord

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below the seat of the injury or abstruction. Injuries or

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obstructions of this kind not only inhibit the sensory reports

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from the affected area, but also inhibit the motor impulses

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from the brain which are intended to move the limbs

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or parts of the body. The ganglia or tiny brains

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what are known as ganglia or tiny bunches of nerve centers,

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are found in various parts of the nervous system, including

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the spinal nerves. These groups of nerve cells sometimes called

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little brains, and perform quite important offices in the mechanism

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of thought and action. The spinal ganglia receive sensory reports

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and issue motor impulses in many cases without troubling the

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central brain regarding the matter. These activities are known as

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reflex nervous action. Reflex action, what is known as reflex

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nervous action, is one of the most wonderful of the

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activities the nervous and mental mechanism, and the knowledge thereof

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usually comes as a surprise to the average person, for

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he is generally under the impression that these activities are

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possible only to the central brain. It is a fact

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that not only is the central brain really a trinity

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of three brains, but that in addition to these, every

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one has a great number of little brains distributed over

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his nervous system. Any and all of which are capable

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of receiving sensory reports and also of sending forth motor impulses.

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It is quite worth while for one to become acquainted

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with this wonderful form of neuro mental activity. A cinder

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enters the eye, the report reaches a ganglion, a motor

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impulse is sent forth, and the eyelid closes. The same

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result ensues if an object approaches the eye, but without

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actually entering it. In either case, the person is not

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conscious of the sensation and motor impulse until the latter

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has been accomplished. This is reflex action. The instinctive movement

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of the tickled foot is another instance. The jerking away

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of the hand burned by the lighted end of the

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cigar or pricked by the point of the pin is

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another instance. The involuntary activities and those known as unconscious

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activities result from reflex action. More than this, it is

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a fact that many activities originally voluntary, become what is

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known as acquired reflexes or motor habits by means of

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certain nervous centers acquiring the habit of sending forth certain

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motor impulses in respet monster certain sensory reports, the familiar

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movements of our lives are largely performed in this way,

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as for instance, walking using knife and fork, operating typewriters,

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machines of all kinds, writing, et cetera. The squirming of

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a decapitated snake, the muscular movements of a decapitated frog,

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and the violent struggles, fluttering and leaps of the decapitated

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fowl are instances of reflex action. Medical reports indicate that

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in cases of decapitation, even man may manifest similar reflex action.

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In some cases. Thus we may see that we may

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feel and will by means of our little brains as

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well as by the central brain or brains. Whatever mind

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may be, it is certain that in these processes it

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employs other portions of the nervous system than the central brain.

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The three brains. What is known as the brain of

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man is really a trinity of three brains, known respectively

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as one the medulla oblongata, two the cerebellum, and three

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the cerebrum. If one wishes to limit the mental activity

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to conscious intellectual effort, then and then only is he

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correct in considering the cerebrum or large brain as the brain.

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The medulla oblongata The medulla oblongata is the enlargement of

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the spinal cord at the base of the brain. Its

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office is that of controlling the involuntary activities of the body,

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such as respiration, circulation, assimilation, etc. In a broad sense,

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its activities may be said to be of the nature

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of highly developed and complex reflex activities. It manifests chiefly

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through the sympathetic nervous system, which controls the vital functions.

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It does not need to call on the large brain

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in these matters ordinarily, and is able to perform its

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tasks without the plane of ordinary consciousness. The cerebellum. The cerebellum,

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also known as the little brain, lies just above the

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medulla oblongata and just below the rear portion of the

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cerebrum or great brain. It combines the nature of a

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purely reflexed center on the one hand, with that of

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habit mind on the other. In short, it fills a

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place between the activities of the cerebrum and the medulla oblongata,

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having some of the characteristics of each. It is the

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organ of a number of important acquired reflexes, such as

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walking and many other familiar muscular movements which have first

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been consciously acquired and then become habitual. The skilled skater, bicyclist, typist,

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or machinist depends upon the cerebellum for the ease and

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certainty with which he performs his movements without thinking of them.

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One may be said never to have thoroughly acquired a

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set of muscular movements such as we have mentioned, until

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a cerebellum is taken over the task and relieve the

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cerebrum of the conscious effort. One's technique is never perfected

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until a cerebellum assumes control and direction of the necessary

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movements and impulses sent forth from below the plane of

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ordinary consciousness the cerebrum. The cerebrum or great brain, which

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is regarded as the brain by the average person, is

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situated in the upper portion of the skull and occupies

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by far the larger portion of the cavity of the skull.

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It is divided into two great divisions, or hemispheres. The

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best of the modern authorities are agreed that the cerebrum

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has zones or areas of specialized functioning, some of which

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we see the sensory reports of the nerves and organs

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of sense, while others send forth the motor impulses which

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result in voluntary physical action. Many of these areas or

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zones have been located by science, other remain as yet unlocated.

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The probability is that in time science will succeed in

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correctly locating the area or zone of each and every

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class of sensation and motor impulse. The cortex, the area

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of thought, memory, and imagination, has not been clearly located,

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except that these mental states are believed to have this

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seat in the cortex or outer thin rind of gray

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brain matter, which envelops and covers the mass of brain substance.

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It is moreover considered probable that the higher processes of

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reasoning are performed in or by the cortex of the

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frontal lobes. The cortex of a person of average intelligence,

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if spread out on a flat surface, measures about four

358
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square feet. The higher the degree of intelligence possessed by

359
00:24:50,440 --> 00:24:53,799
a lower animal or human being, as a rule, the

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deeper and more numerous are the folds or convolutions of

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the cortex, and the finer its structure. It may be stated,

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as a general rule, with but very few exceptions, of

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00:25:05,440 --> 00:25:08,039
the higher the degree of intelligence in the lower animal

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or human being. The greater is the area of its

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cortex in proportion to the size of the brain. The cortex,

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00:25:15,880 --> 00:25:19,960
it must be remembered, is folded into deep furrows or convolutions.

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The brain in shape divisions and convolutions resembling the inner

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portion of an English walnut. The interior of the two

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hemispheres of the cerebrum is composed largely of connective nerves,

370
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which doubtless serve to produce and maintain the unity of

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function of the mental processes. While physiological psychology has performed

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a great work in discovering brain centers and explaining much

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of the mechanism of mental processes, it has but touched

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the most elementary and simple of the mental processes. The

375
00:25:52,240 --> 00:25:56,440
higher processes have so far to find analysis or explanation

376
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in the terms of physiology.