WEBVTT

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<v Speaker 1>Welcome to Bedtime Astronomy. Explore the wonders of the cosmos

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<v Speaker 1>with our soothing Bedtime Astronomy podcast. Each episode offers a

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<v Speaker 1>gentle journey through the stars, planets, and beyond, perfect for

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<v Speaker 1>unwinding after a long day. Let's travel through the mysteries

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<v Speaker 1>of the universe as you drift off into a peaceful

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<v Speaker 1>slumber under the night sky. This week in Astronomy, Venus Crust,

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<v Speaker 1>Hidden rogue Planets, and Logo Mission. Venus crust may be

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<v Speaker 1>active without plate tectonics. New research into the geology of

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<v Speaker 1>Venus has revealed surprising insights into how the planet's crust

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<v Speaker 1>behaves and evolves, offering a fresh perspective on the internal

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<v Speaker 1>dynamics of Earth's closest planetary neighbor. Traditionally, scientists believe that

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<v Speaker 1>Venus's crust should grow increasingly thicker over time. This expectation

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<v Speaker 1>was based on the long held view that Venus, unlike Earth,

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<v Speaker 1>lacks the geological mechanisms like plate tectonics that recycle crustal

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<v Speaker 1>material back into the planet's interior. On Earth, large plates

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<v Speaker 1>of the rocky outer shell shift slowly, colliding and sliding

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<v Speaker 1>past one another in a complex dance known as plate tectonics.

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<v Speaker 1>When two of these plates meet, the denser one is

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<v Speaker 1>often forced downward into the mantle in a process known

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<v Speaker 1>as subduction. As the subducting plate sinks, it experiences intense

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<v Speaker 1>heat and pressure, undergoing metamorphism changes in mineral structure and composition.

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<v Speaker 1>This not only reshapes the crust, but also fuels volcanic

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<v Speaker 1>activity and helps regulate the planet's crustal thickness. Venus, in contrast,

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<v Speaker 1>does not exhibit clear signs of plate tectonics. Its surface

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<v Speaker 1>appears to be a single continuous shell, without the massive

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<v Speaker 1>moving plates seen on Earth. However, recent modeling by researchers,

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<v Speaker 1>including those at NASA's Johnson's Space Center, has challenged the

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<v Speaker 1>notion that Venus's crust remains stagnant and endlessly thickens. According

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<v Speaker 1>to the study published in Nature Communications, the average thickness

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<v Speaker 1>of Venus's crust is around twenty five miles forty kilometers,

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<v Speaker 1>and in some areas it reaches no more than forty

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<v Speaker 1>miles sixty five kilometers. This finding is unexpectedly thin, especially

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<v Speaker 1>considering venuses intense surface temperatures and pressure. The miles suggest

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<v Speaker 1>a mechanism that despite the absence of tectonic plates still

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<v Speaker 1>causes the crust to undergo metamorphism. As the crust accumulates

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<v Speaker 1>in thickens, the lower layers eventually reach a density so

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<v Speaker 1>high that they either sink into the mantle or become

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<v Speaker 1>hot enough to melt. This process mimics aspects of subduction

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<v Speaker 1>in that it allows surface material to return to the

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<v Speaker 1>planet's interior. Such recycling of crustal material plays a cross

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<v Speaker 1>crucial role in driving volcanic activity on Venus. When dense

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<v Speaker 1>rocks from the bottom of the crust either detach or melt,

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<v Speaker 1>they release water and other elements back into the interior.

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<v Speaker 1>These components can lower the melting point of mantle rocks,

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<v Speaker 1>encouraging magma formation and possibly triggering volcanic eruptions. This discovery

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<v Speaker 1>introduces a new way of understanding how Venus might remain

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<v Speaker 1>geologically active without Earth like plate tectonics. It shifts the

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<v Speaker 1>focus from traditional tectonic mechanisms to density driven processes that

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<v Speaker 1>still lead to metamorphism and crustal recycling. Understanding these internal

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<v Speaker 1>processes is vital to grasping the larger picture of Venus's

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<v Speaker 1>geological and atmospheric evolution. The interaction between the crust, interior,

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<v Speaker 1>and atmosphere of the planet likely shapes not just surface features,

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<v Speaker 1>but also atmospheric chemistry and climate. Researchers are now looking

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<v Speaker 1>to future missions to get other direct evidence of these processes.

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<v Speaker 1>NASA's upcoming Da Vinci and Veritas missions, along with the

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<v Speaker 1>European Space Agencies and Vision mission, aim to explore Venus's

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<v Speaker 1>surface and atmosphere in unprecedented detail. These missions are expected

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<v Speaker 1>to provide crucial data that could validate or refine the

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<v Speaker 1>current models, offering a clearer view of the planet's active geology.

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<v Speaker 1>There remains much to learn about Venus, particularly its volcanic activity.

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<v Speaker 1>While current models and studies point to significant volcanism, the

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<v Speaker 1>actual extent of this activity is still uncertain. Only with

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<v Speaker 1>more direct data will scientists be able to determine the

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<v Speaker 1>true nature of the geological forces at work beneath the

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<v Speaker 1>planet's thick, cloud covered surface. This new research has opened

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<v Speaker 1>the door to a deeper understanding of Venus, suggesting that

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<v Speaker 1>even in the absence of familiar earthlike plate tectonics, the

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<v Speaker 1>planet may possess its own unique and dynamic system. Internal

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<v Speaker 1>renewal Roman telescopes set to uncover hidden rogue planets. Over

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<v Speaker 1>the past decade, astronomers have grown increasingly fascinated by rogue planets,

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<v Speaker 1>worlds that drift through the galaxy untethered to any star.

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<v Speaker 1>Unlike Earth or Jupiter, which orbit the Sun, these planets

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<v Speaker 1>wander the vast darkness of space alone. Their very existence

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<v Speaker 1>raises fundamental questions about how planetary systems evolve and what

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<v Speaker 1>kinds of forces shape their fates. The upcoming Nancy Grace

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<v Speaker 1>Roman Space Telescope is poised to dramatically advance our knowledge

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<v Speaker 1>in this area. While detecting rogue planets is notoriously difficult

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<v Speaker 1>due to their lack of illumination, Roman is uniquely equipped

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<v Speaker 1>to reveal them in large numbers and provide insight into

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<v Speaker 1>how they form, what they're made of, and how common

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<v Speaker 1>they might be throughout the Milky Way. A recent scientific

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<v Speaker 1>paper delves into how Roman will contribute to the study

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<v Speaker 1>of these mysterious wanderers. Central to the paper is the

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<v Speaker 1>concept of the free floating planet mass function, which is

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<v Speaker 1>a statistical tool used to understand the distribution of masses

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<v Speaker 1>among rogue planets in the galaxy. This idea parallels the

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<v Speaker 1>better known planetary mass function that describes the distribution of

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<v Speaker 1>planet sizes around stars. By applying a similar approach to

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<v Speaker 1>rogue planets, researchers hope to determine how many of these

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<v Speaker 1>objects exist, what sizes they come in, and how their

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<v Speaker 1>population compares to that of planets that remain in orbit

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<v Speaker 1>around their parent stars. What makes ROMAN particularly powerful in

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<v Speaker 1>this mission is its potential to detect not just large

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<v Speaker 1>Jupiter sized rogues, but also smaller Earth sized or even

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<v Speaker 1>sub Earth mass planets that have previously been invisible to astronomers.

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<v Speaker 1>This capability would vastly expand the known population of free

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<v Speaker 1>floating planets, offering a more complete picture of their abundance

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<v Speaker 1>and characteristics. Scientists are a specially interested in understanding how

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<v Speaker 1>these planets were ejected from their original systems. Planetary formation

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<v Speaker 1>is a chaotic process. Protoplanets are jostled around by gravitational

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<v Speaker 1>forces in young planetary systems, and sometimes the interactions are

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<v Speaker 1>violent enough to fling planets into deep space. Roman could

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<v Speaker 1>offer clues about how often this happens and under what conditions,

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<v Speaker 1>Particularly by comparing the frequency in massive ejected worlds. Theorists

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<v Speaker 1>estimate that rogue planets might outnumber those bound to stars,

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<v Speaker 1>potentially numbering in the billions across the Milky Way. If

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<v Speaker 1>that's the case, the galaxy could be teeming with icy,

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<v Speaker 1>lonely planets wandering in darkness. These worlds, lacking the warmth

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<v Speaker 1>of a nearby star, are thought to be frozen and inhospitable. Nevertheless,

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<v Speaker 1>their presence is critical to our understanding of how planets

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<v Speaker 1>form and what happens when those processes go awry. The

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<v Speaker 1>challenge is that rogue plantanets are very difficult to detect,

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<v Speaker 1>especially the smaller ones. Without the light of apparent star

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<v Speaker 1>reflecting off them, they blend into the blackness of space.

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<v Speaker 1>One of the most effective techniques available today is microlensing,

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<v Speaker 1>where the gravity of a rogue planet passing in front

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<v Speaker 1>of a distant star bends the star's light in a

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<v Speaker 1>detectable way. This fleeting alignment causes a temporary brightening or

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<v Speaker 1>wobble in the star's light, revealing the presence of the

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<v Speaker 1>otherwise invisible planet. Roman's design includes a powerful microlensing survey

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<v Speaker 1>called the Galactic Bulge Time Domain Survey. This survey will

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<v Speaker 1>repeatedly monitor dense star fields toward the center of the

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<v Speaker 1>galaxy to detect microlensing events, potentially uncovering hundreds or even

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<v Speaker 1>thousands of free floating planets. With this rich data set,

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<v Speaker 1>scientists hope to build a statistical map of rogue planet masses, distances,

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<v Speaker 1>and frequencies across the Milky Way. ROMAN will be especially

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<v Speaker 1>valuable in identifying low mass planets that current telescopes are

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<v Speaker 1>too limited to find. These smaller planets are particularly important

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<v Speaker 1>because they help paint a fuller picture of planet formation

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<v Speaker 1>and ejection. Their small size means they could be easily

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<v Speaker 1>displaced by gravitational interactions, unlike more massive planets that would

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<v Speaker 1>require much stronger forces to be ejected. Finding larger roque

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<v Speaker 1>planets will also help reveal what sort of dynamic upheavals

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<v Speaker 1>are powerful enough to expel them from their star systems.

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<v Speaker 1>In addition to microlensing, ROMAN will use another method called

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<v Speaker 1>the transit method in its broader exoplanet search. This involves

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<v Speaker 1>detecting dips in the brightness of a star when a

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<v Speaker 1>planet crosses in front of it. While this technique is

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<v Speaker 1>generally more useful for planets orbiting stars, it will complement

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<v Speaker 1>microlensing data to improve our overall understanding of planet populations.

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<v Speaker 1>In the galaxy. Together, these method bids will allow ROMAN

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<v Speaker 1>to detect both bound and unbound planets, offering a uniquely

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<v Speaker 1>comprehensive view. Although the Roman Space Telescope is still awaiting launch,

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<v Speaker 1>its capabilities are already exciting astronomers who believe it will

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<v Speaker 1>fundamentally reshape our knowledge of the galaxy's hidden inhabitants. Its

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<v Speaker 1>ability to find and study rogue planets, especially those of

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<v Speaker 1>low mass, will allow scientists to explore questions that have

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<v Speaker 1>remained unanswered for decades. How common are rogue planets, what

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<v Speaker 1>processes lead to their formation and ejection, and could they

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<v Speaker 1>hold any surprises about the range and diversity of planets

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<v Speaker 1>that exist in the universe. By filling in these blanks,

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<v Speaker 1>Roman will not only deepen our understanding of planetary science,

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<v Speaker 1>but also offer a new perspective on the dynamic and

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<v Speaker 1>often chaotic nature of planet formation across the cosmos. Uncovering

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<v Speaker 1>the Moon's hidden history with LUGO, Some areas of the

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<v Speaker 1>Moon have captured more scientific attention than others, especially as

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<v Speaker 1>we look ahead to a future where humans may live

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<v Speaker 1>and work on its surface. Yet there remain many mysteries

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<v Speaker 1>hidden within the lunar landscape, particularly in lesser known features

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<v Speaker 1>like the irregular mare patches or imps. These formations are

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<v Speaker 1>scattered across the Moon and pose questions that science has

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<v Speaker 1>yet to answer, especially concerning their origins and what they

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<v Speaker 1>might reveal about the Moon's complex geological past. While traditional

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<v Speaker 1>missions have helped build a foundational understanding of the Moon's topography,

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<v Speaker 1>a new proposed mission, known as the Lunar Geology Orbiter

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<v Speaker 1>or LUGO, aims to delve deeper into these puzzles and

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<v Speaker 1>potentially shape the future of lunar exploration. LUGO is designed

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<v Speaker 1>to closely examine both the enigmatic imps and the equally

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<v Speaker 1>mysterious lava tubes, which some scientists believe could be prime

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<v Speaker 1>locations for future human habitats. Imps are especially intriguing because

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<v Speaker 1>they represent volcanic landforms that are unlike most others on

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<v Speaker 1>the Moon. They typically appear as topographical depressions, often several

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<v Speaker 1>kilometers wide, and feature a combination of smooth mounds and rugged,

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<v Speaker 1>block filled floors. These patches are notable for having significantly

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<v Speaker 1>fewer impact craters compared to the surrounding terrain, which raises

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<v Speaker 1>important questions about their age. Are they remnants from the

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<v Speaker 1>Moon's distant volcanic history, or are they younger than previously believed,

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<v Speaker 1>formed by processes we don't yet fully understand. Answering such

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<v Speaker 1>questions is a core goal of the LUGO mission. Alongside IMPS,

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<v Speaker 1>LUGO will focus heavily on lunar lava tubes, underground tunnels

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<v Speaker 1>formed by ancient volcanic activity. These structures could offer natural

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<v Speaker 1>protection against radiation and extreme temperatures, making them ideal candidates

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<v Speaker 1>for the site of future lunar bases. However, estimates of

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<v Speaker 1>their depth, width, and overall stability very widely, and current

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<v Speaker 1>data is far from conclusive. That's where LUGO comes in.

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<v Speaker 1>With its planned suite of four highly specialized instruments, the

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<v Speaker 1>orbiter promises to gather unprecedented information about the Moon's subsurface

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<v Speaker 1>in surface features. Central to this suite is a ground

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<v Speaker 1>penetrating radar, which will allow scientists to peer beneath the

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<v Speaker 1>lunar's surface and observe the structures hidden below. For IMPS,

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<v Speaker 1>this radar could map the boundary between the surface regolith

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<v Speaker 1>and the bedrock, revealing the underground architecture of these mysterious patches.

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<v Speaker 1>When aimed at lava tubes. The radar would detect subtle

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<v Speaker 1>differences in underground materials and cavities, effectively sketching out a

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<v Speaker 1>subterranean map that has never before been possible on the Moon.

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<v Speaker 1>Complementing this instrument will be a hyper spectral camera that

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<v Speaker 1>collects data related to the age and composition of the

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<v Speaker 1>lunar soil. By analyzing reflected light at many wavelengths, this

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<v Speaker 1>camera can help determine not just what materials make up

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<v Speaker 1>the regolith in and around imps and lava tubes, but

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<v Speaker 1>also when those materials may have been deposited or formed.

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<v Speaker 1>This information will be crucial for understanding how these formations

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<v Speaker 1>evolved over time. To further enhance the mission's observational power,

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<v Speaker 1>LOGO will also carry a narrow angle camera and alid

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<v Speaker 1>our sensor. These two devices will work together to produce

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<v Speaker 1>highly detailed topographical maps of the Moon's surface. The narrow

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<v Speaker 1>angle camera, in particular, is capable of capturing very high

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<v Speaker 1>resolution imagery, which can aid in determining the morphology and

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<v Speaker 1>possible formation history of the imps and lava tubes. With

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<v Speaker 1>these tools, LOGO will conduct multiple orbital passes over the

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<v Speaker 1>six largest known imps, each spanning more than a kilometer

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<v Speaker 1>in diameter. Smaller imps, additional LI tubes, and other unique

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<v Speaker 1>geological features like lunar domes and floor fractured craters will

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<v Speaker 1>also be observed as secondary objectives. LUGO will not operate

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<v Speaker 1>in isolation. Its goals are designed to align with and

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<v Speaker 1>enhance other upcoming missions. For instance, NASA's Dimple Lander is

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<v Speaker 1>expected to analyze the age of lunar regalith through radioisotopic

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<v Speaker 1>measurements taken at its landing site. The European Space Agency

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<v Speaker 1>is planning a mission called Lunar Leper, set to launch

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<v Speaker 1>around twenty thirty, which will carry a ground penetrating radar

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<v Speaker 1>of its own, though its surface based design means it

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<v Speaker 1>won't have the broad observational capacity of an orbiter like LUGO. Meanwhile,

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<v Speaker 1>the Trailblazer mission, another orbital project, could help refine the

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<v Speaker 1>spectroscopic analysis techniques that LUGO will rely on. While LUGO

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<v Speaker 1>remains in the proposal phase and awaits funding approval, its

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<v Speaker 1>potential scientific return is immense. If launched, it could revolutionize

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<v Speaker 1>our understanding of lunar geology, providing high resolution data that

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<v Speaker 1>fills gaps in our knowledge and potentially guiding decisions about

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<v Speaker 1>where to establish permanent human settlements on the Moon. The

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<v Speaker 1>kind of insight it offers would go far beyond what

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<v Speaker 1>current instruments can achieve, particularly in decoding the mysterious histories

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<v Speaker 1>of imps and assessing the practical value of lava tubes.

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<v Speaker 1>In the long view, the success of LOGO could very

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<v Speaker 1>well influence the way humanity explores and inhabits the Moon,

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<v Speaker 1>and the people who eventually live in lunar habitats may

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<v Speaker 1>owe much to the discoveries it makes. The US becom