Speaker 1: Chapter four, Consciousness. The fact of consciousness is the great
mystery of psychology. It is difficult even to define the term,
although every person of average intelligence understands what is sought
to be conveyed by it. Webster defines it as knowledge
of one's own existence, sensations, mental operations, et cetera, immediate
knowledge or perception of any object, state or sensation, being
aware being sensible of another. Authority defines the term as
the state of being aware of one's sensations, the power, faculty,
or mental image of being aware of one's own existence
condition at the moment, thoughts, feelings, and actions. Alex definition
is that indefinable characteristic of mental states which causes us
to be aware of them. It will be seen that
the idea of awareness is the essence the idea of consciousness.
But at the last we are compelled to acknowledge that
it is impossible to closely define consciousness, for it is
something so entirely unique and different from anything else that
we have no other terms at all synonymous to it.
We can define it only in its own terms, as
we have seen by reference to the definitions above given,
And it is equally impossible to clearly account for its
appearance and being. Huxley has well said, how it is
that anything so remarkable as a state of consciousness comes
about by the result of irritating nervous tissue is just
as unaccountable as the appearance of the genie when Aladdin
rubbed his lamp. All that we can ever know regarding
the nature of consciousness must be learned from turning the
consciousness in ourselves back upon itself, by focusing consciousness upon
its own mental operations by means of introspection, by turning
inward the conscious gaze, we may perceive the flow of
the stream of thought from its rise from the subconscious
regions of the mind to its final disappearance in the
same region. It is a common error to suppose that
we are directly conscious of objects outside of ourselves. This
is impossible, for there is no direct knowledge of such
outside objects. We are conscious merely of our sensations of
or mental images of the outside objects. All that is
possible for us to be directly conscious of are our
own mental experiences or states. We cannot be directly conscious
of anything outside of our own minds. We are not
directly conscious of the tree which we see, we are
directly conscious merely of the sensation of the nerves arising
from the impact of the light waves carrying the image
of the tree. We are not directly conscious of the
tree when we touch it and perceive its character. In
that way, we are directly conscious merely of the sensation
reported by the nerves in the fingertips which have come
in contact with the tree. We are directly conscious even
of our own bodies only in the same way it
is necessary for the mind to experience that of which
it may become conscious. We are conscious only of one
that which our mind is experiencing at this moment, or
two that which has experienced in the past, and which
is being re experienced this moment by the process of
the memory, or which is being recombined or re arranged
this moment by their imagination subconscious planes. But it must
not be thought that every mental state or mental fact
is in the field of consciousness. This error has been
exploded for many years. The fact is now recognized that
the field of consciousness is a very narrow, unlimited one,
and that the great field of mental activity lies outside limit.
Beyond and outside of the narrow field of consciousness lies
the great subconscious storehouse of memory, in which are stored
the experiences of the past, to be drawn again into
the field of consciousness by an effort of the will
in the act of recollection, or by association in ordinary remembrance.
In that great region, also the mind manifests many of
its activities and performs much of its work. In that
great region are evolved the emotions and feelings which play
such an important part in our lives, and which often
manifest a vague, disturbing unrest long before they rise to
the plane of consciousness. In that great region are produced
the ideas, feelings, and conceptions which rise to the plane
of consciousness and manifest that which men call genius. On
a subconscious plane, the imagination does much of its work
and startles its owner by presenting him with the accomplished
result in the field of consciousness. In the subconscious field
is performed that peculiar process of mental mastication, digestion, and
assimilation with which all brain workers are familiar, and which
absorbs the raw mental material given it separates, digests, and
assimilates it, and represents it to the conscious faculties. Sometime
after as a transformed substance. It has been estimated that
at least eighty five percent of our mental activities are
performed below or outside of the field of consciousness. The
psychology of today's paying much attention to this formally neglected
great area or areas of the mind. The psychology of
tomorrow will pay still greater attention to it. The best
of the modern authorities agree that in the great field
of subconscious mentation is to be found the explanation of
much that is unexplainable otherwise. In fact, it is probable
that before long consciousness will be regarded as a mere
fae focusing of attention upon mental states, and the objects
of consciousness merely as that portion of the contents of
the mind in the field of mental vision created by
such focusing end of Chapter four, Chapter five. Attention intimately
connected with the object of consciousness is that process of
the mind which we call attention. Attention is generally defined
as the application of the mind to a mental state,
is often referred to as concentrated consciousness, but others have
ventured the somewhat daring conjecture that consciousness itself is rather
the result of attention, instead of the latter being an
incident of consciousness. We shall not attempt to discuss this
question here except to state that consciousness depends very materially
upon the degree of attention bestowed upon its object. The
authorities place great importance upon the intelligent direction of the attention,
and hold that without this the higher forms of knowledge
are impossible. It is the common belief that we feel, see, here, taste,
and smell whenever objects affecting those senses come in contact
with the organs of sense governing them. But this is
only a partial truth. The real truth is that we
become conscious of the report of these senses only when
the attention is directed toward the sensation voluntarily or involuntarily.
That is to say that in many cases, although the
sense nerves and organs report a disturbance, the mind does
not become consciously aware of the report unless the attention
is directed toward it, either by an act of will
or else by reflex action. For instance, the clock may
strike loudly, and yet we may not be conscious of
the fact, for we are concentrating our at tension upon
a book. Or we may eat the choicest food without
tasting it intently. The conversation of our charming neighbor, we
may fail to perceive some startling occurrence happening under our
very eyes, for we are buried in deep thought concerning
something far removed from the present scene. There are many
cases on record showing that one may be so interested
in speaking, thinking, or acting that he will not experience
pain that would otherwise be intolerable. Writers have forgotten their
pain in the concentrated interests bestowed upon their work. Mothers
have failed to feel pain when their infants require urgent attention.
Orators have been so carried away by their own eloquence
that they have failed to feel the pricking of the
pin by means of which their friends have sought to
attract their attention. Not only perception and feeling depend largely
upon attention, but the processes of reasoning, memory, and even
of will depend upon attention for much of their manifestation.
Psychologists divide attention into two general classes, that is, one
voluntary attention and two involuntary attention. Voluntary attention is attention
directed by the will to some object of our own
more or less deliberate selection. It requires a distinct effort
of the will in order to focus the attention in
this way, and many persons are scarcely aware of its existence,
so seldom do they manifest it. Voluntary attention is the
result of training and practice, and marks the man of
strong will, concentration, and character. Some authorities go so far
as to say that much of that which is commonly
called will power is really but a developed form of
voluntary attention, the man of strong will holding before him
the one idea which he wishes to realize. Involuntary attention,
often called reflex attention, is attention called forth by a
nervous response to some sense stimulus. This is the common
form attention, and is but the same form which is
so strongly manifested by children, whose attention is caught by
every new object, but which cannot be held for any
length of time by a familiar or uninteresting one. It
is of the utmost importance that one should cultivate his
power of voluntary attention. Not only is the will power
strengthened and developed in this way, but every mental faculty
is developed by reason thereof the Training of the voluntary
attention is the first step in mental development. Training the attention.
That the voluntary attention may be deliberately trained and developed
is a fact which many of the world's greatest men
have proved for themselves. There is only one way to
train and develop any mental power or faculty, and that
is by practice and use. By practice, interest may be
given to objects previously uninteresting, and thus the use of
the attention develops the interest, interest which further holds it.
Interest is the natural road over which attention travels easily.
But interest itself may be induced by concentrated attention. By
studying and examining an object, the attention brings to light
many new and novel features regarding the thing, and needs
produce a new interest, which in turn attracts further and
continued attention. There is no royal road to the development
of voluntary attention. The only true method is work, practice,
and use. You must practice on uninteresting things, the primary
interest being your desire to develop the power of voluntary attention.
But as you begin to attend to the uninteresting thing,
you will become interested in the task for its own sake.
Take some object and place your mind upon it. Think
of its nature, where it came from, its use, its associations,
its probable future of things related to it, et cetera,
et cetera. Keep the attention firmly upon it and shut
out all outside ideas. Then, after a little practice of
this kind, lay aside the object for the time being,
and take it up again the next day, endeavoring to
discover new points of interest in it. The main thing
to be sought is to hold the thing in your mind,
and this can be done only by discovering features of
interest in it. The interest loving attention may rebel at
this task at first, and will seek to wander from
the path into the green pastures which are found on
either side thereof. But you must bring your mind back
to the task again and again. After a time, the
mind will become accustomed to the drill, and will even
begin to enjoy it. Give it some variety by occasionally
changing the objects of examination. The object need not always
be something to be looked at. Instead, select some subject
in history or literature and run it down, endeavoring to
bring to light all the facts relating to it that
are possible to you. Anything may be used as the
subject or object of your inquiry, but what is chosen
must be held in the field of conscious attention firmly
and fixedly. The habit once acquired, you'll find the practice
most fascinating you will invent new subjects or objects of inquiry, investigation,
and thought, which in themselves will well repay you for
your work and time. But never lose sight of the
main point, the development of the power of voluntary attention.
In studying the methods of developing and training the voluntary attention,
the student should remember that any exercise which develops the
will will result in developing the attention, and likewise, any
exercise which develops the voluntary attention will tend to strengthen
the will. The will and attention are so closely bound
together that what affects one also influences the other. This
fact should be borne in mind, and the exercises and
practices based upon it. In practicing concentration of voluntary attention,
it should be remembered that concentration consists not only of
focusing the attention upon a given object or subject, but
also of the shutting out of impressions from other objects
or subjects. Some authorities advise that the student endeavor to
listen to one voice among many, or one instrument among
the many of a band or orchestra. Others advise a
practice of concentrating on the reading of a book in
a room filled by persons engaged in conversation and similar exercises.
Whatever aids in narrowing the circle of attention at a
given moment tends to develop the power of voluntary attention.
The study of mathematics and logic is also held to
be an excellent practice in a concentration of voluntary attention,
inasmuch as these studies require close pers concentration and attention.
Attention is also developed by any study or practice which
demands analysis of a whole into its parts, and then
the synthesis or building up of a whole from its
scattered parts. Each of the sensors should play a part
in the exercises, and in addition to this, the mind
should be trained to concentrate upon some one idea held
within itself, some mental image or abstract idea existing independently
of any objective immediate sense report. End of Chapter five,
Chapter six Perception. It is a common mistake that we
perceive everything that is reported to the mind by the senses.
As a matter of fact, we perceive but a very
small portion of the reports of the senses. There are
thousands of sites reported by our eyes, sounds reported by
our ears, smells reported by our nostril and contacts reported
by our nerves of touch every day of our lives,
but which are not perceived or observed by the mind.
We perceive and observe only when the attention, reflex or
voluntary is directed to the report of the senses, and
when the mind interprets the report. While perception depends upon
the reports of the senses for its raw material, it
depends entirely upon the application of the mind for its
complete manifestation. The student usually experiences great difficulty in distinguishing
between sensation and perception. A sensation is a simple report
of the senses which is received in consciousness. Perception is
the thought arising from the feeling of the sensation. Perception
usually combines several sensations into one thought or percept. By sensation,
the mind feels. By perception, it knows that it feels
and recognizes the object causing the sensation. Sensation merely brings
the report from outside objects, while perception identifies the report
with the object which caused it. Perception interprets the reports
of sensation. Sensation reports a flash of light from above,
Perception interprets the light as starlight or moonlight or sunlight,
or as the flash of a meteor. Sensation reports a sharp, pricking,
painful contact, perception interprets it as the prick of a pin.
Sensation reports a red spot on a green background, perception
interprets it as a berry on a bush. Moreover, while
we may perceive a simple single sensation, our perceptions are
usually of a group of sensations. Perception is usually employed
in grouping sensations and identifying them with the object or
objects causing them. In its identification, it draws upon whatever
memory of past experiences the mind may possess. Memory, imagination, feeling,
and thought are called into play to some extent. In
every clear perception, the infant has but feeble perception, but
as it gains experience, it begins to manifest perceptions and
form percepts. Sensations resemble the letters of the alphabet a
perception the forming of words and sentences from the letters. Thus, C, A,
and T symbolize sensations, while a word cat formed from
them symbolizes the perception of the object. It is held
that all knowledge begins with sensation, that the mental history
the race or individual begins with its first sensation. But
while this is admitted, it must be remembered that sensation
simply provides the simple, elementary raw material of thought. The
first process of actual thought or knowledge begins with perception.
From our percept, all of our high concepts and ideas
are formed. Perception depends upon the association of the sensation
with other sensations previously experienced. It is based upon experience.
The greater the experience, the greater is the possibility of perception,
all else being equal. When perception begins, the mind loses
sight of the sensation in itself, for it identifies it
as a quality of the thing producing it. The sensation
of light is thought of as a quality of the star.
The pricking sensation is thought of as a quality of
the pin or chestnut burr. The sensation of odour is
thought of as a quality of the rose. In the
case of the rose, the several sensations of sight, touch,
and smell, in their impression of the qualities of colour, shape, softness,
and perfume are grouped together in the percept of The
complete object of the flower. Accept is that which is perceived,
the object of the active perception. The percept, of course,
is a mental state corresponding with its outside object. It
is a combination of several sensations which are regarded as
the qualities of the outside object, to which are combined
the memories of past experiences ideas, feelings and thoughts. A percept, then,
while a simplest form of thought is seen to be
a mental state. The formation of a percept consists of
three gradual stages. That is, one, the attention forms definite
conscious sensations from indefinite nervous reports sc Two, the mind
interprets these definite conscious sensations and attributes them to the
outside object, causing them. Three, the related sensations are grouped together.
They unity perceived and are regarded as qualities of the
outside object. The plain distinction between the sensation and a
percept may be fixed in the mind by remembering the following.
A sensation is a feeling. A percept is a simple
thought identifying one or more sensations. A sensation is merely
the conscious recognition of an excitation of a nerve end
A percept results from a distinct mental process regarding the
sensation developing perception. It is of the utmost importance that
we develop and train our powers of perception for our
education depends very materially upon our perceptive power. What matters
it to us if the outside world be filled with
manifold objects, if we do not perceive them to exist
upon perception depends the material of our mental world. Many
persons go through the world without perceiving even the most
obvious facts. Their eyes and ears are perfect instruments, their
nerves convey accurate reports, But the perceptive faculties of the
mind fail to observe and interpret the report of the senses.
They see and hear distinctly, But the reports of the
senses are not observed or noted by them. They mean
nothing to them. One may see many things, and yet
observe but few. It is not upon what we see
or hear that our stock of knowledge depends so much
as it does upon what we perceive, notice, or observe.
Not only is one's stock of practical knowledge largely based
upon developed perception, but one's success also depends materially upon
the same faculties. In business and professional life, the successful
man is usually he who has developed perceptive powers, he
who has learned to perceive, observe, and note. The man
who perceives and takes mental notes of what occurs in
his world is a man who is apt to know
things when such knowledge is needed. In this age of
book education, we find that the young people are not
nearly so observant as are those children who had to
depend upon the powers of perception for their knowledge. The
young Arab or Indian will observe more in an hour
than the civilized child will in a day. To live
in a world of books tends in many cases to
weaken the powers of observation and perception. Perception may be
developed by practice. Begin by taking notice of the things
seen and heard in your usual walks. Keep wide open
the eyes of the mind, notice the faces of the
people their walk, their characteristics. Look for interesting and odd things,
and you will see them. Do not go through life
in a day dream, but keep a sharp lookout for
things of interest and value. The most familiar things will
repay you for the time and work of examining them
in detail, and the practice gained by such tasks will
prove valuable in your development of perception. An authority remarks
that very few persons, even those to be in the country,
know whether a cow's ears are above, below, behind, or
in front of her horns, nor whether cats descend from
trees head first or tail first. Very few persons can
distinguish between the leaves of the various kinds of familiar
trees in their neighborhood. Comparatively, few persons are able to
describe the house in which they live, at least beyond
the most general features. The details are unknown. Who dart?
The French conjurer was able to pass by a shop
window and perceive every article in it, and then repeat
what he had seen. But he acquired this skill only
by constant and gradual practice. He himself decry at his
skill and claimed that it was as nothing compared to
that of the fashionable women, who can pass another woman
on the street and take in her entire attire from
head to foot at one glance, and be able to
describe not only the fashion and quality of the stuffs,
but also say if the lace be real or only
machine made. A former president of Yale is said to
have been able to glance at a book and read
a quarter of a page at one time. Any study
or occupation which requires analysis will develop the power of perception. Consequently,
if we will analyze the things we see, resolving them
into their parts or elements, we will likewise develop the
perceptive faculties. It is a good exercise to examine some
small object and endeavor to discover as many different points
of perception as possible, noting them on a sheet of paper.
The most familiar object, if carefully examined, will yield rich returns.
If two persons will enter into a contest of this kind,
the spirit of rivalry and competition will quicken the powers
of observation. Those who have had the patience and perseverance
to systematically practice exercises of this kind report that they
notice the steady improvement from the very start. But even
if one does not feel inclined to practice in this way,
it will be found possible to begin to take notice
of the details of things one sees, the expressions of
person's faces, the details of their dress, their tone of voice,
the quality of goods we handle, and the little things
especially Perception like attention follows interest, but likewise interests may
be created in things by observing their details, peculiarities, and characteristics.
The best knowledge gained by one is that, resulting from
his own personal perception, there is a nearness and trueness
about that which is lacking in that he merely believes
because he is read or heard it. One can make
such knowledge a part of himself. Not only is one's
knowledge dependent upon what he perceives, but his very character
also results from the character of his percepts. The influence
of environment is great, and what is environment but things
perceived about one. It is not so much what lies
outside of one as what part of it gets inside
of one by perception. By directing his attention to desirable
objects and perceiving as much of them as is possible,
one really builds his own character at will. The world
needs good perceivers in all the walks of life. It
finds a shortage of them, and is demanding them loudly,
being willing to pay a good price for their services.
The person who can voluntarily perceive and observe the details
of any profession, business, or trade will go far in
that vocation. The education of children should take the faculty
of perception into active consideration. The kindergarten has taken some
steps in this direction, but there is much more to
be done.