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Speaker 1: Chapter twenty. The intellect, the class of mental states or

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processes grouped together under the name of intellectual processes, formed

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a second great division of the mental states, the two

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others being feeling and will, respectively. Intellect has been defined

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as follows, the part or faculty of the human mind

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by which it knows, as distinguished from the power to

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feel and to will, The thinking faculty the understanding also

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as that faculty of the human mind by which it

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receives or comprehends the ideas communicated to it by the

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senses or the perception or other means, as distinguished from

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the power to feel and to will, The power or

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faculty to perceive objects in their relations, the power to

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judge and comprehend also the capacity for higher forms of knowledge,

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as distinguished from the power to perceive and imagine. In

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the preceding chapters, we have seen that the individual is

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able to experience sensations in consciousness, and that he is

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able to perceive them mentally, the latter being the first

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step in intellectual activity. We have also seen that he

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is able to reproduce the perception by means of memory

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and imagination, and that by means of the latter he

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is able to recombine and rearrange the objects of perception.

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We have also seen that he has what are known

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as feelings, which depend upon his previous experience and that

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of his progenitors. So far, the mind has been considered

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merely as receiving and reproducing instrument, with the added attachment

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of the recombining power of the imagination. Up to this point,

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the mind may be compared to the phonographic cylinder with

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an attachment capable of recombining its recorded impressions. The impressions

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received and perceived are stored away, are reproduced, and by

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the use the imagination, are recombined. Up to this point,

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the mind is seen to be more or less of

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an automatic instinctive faculty. It may be traced through a

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purely reflex activity of the lowest forms of life up

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through the lower animals, step by step, until a very

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high degree of mental power is perceived in animals like

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the horse, dog, or elephant. But there is something lacking.

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There is missing that peculiar power of thinking in symbols

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and abstract conceptions which distinguishes the human race, and which

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is closely bound up with the faculty of language or

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expressing thoughts. In words, the comparatively high mental process of

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the lower animals is dwarfed by the human faculty of thinking,

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and thinking is a manifestation of the intellect. What is

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it to think? Strange to say? Very few persons can

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answer this question directly. At first they find themselves inclined

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to answer the inquiry in the words of the child.

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Why to think is to think? Let us see if

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we can make it plain. The dictionary definition is a

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little too technical to be of much use to the beginner.

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But here it is to employ any of the intellectual powers,

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except that of simple perception through the senses. But what

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are the intellectual powers so employed, and how are they employed?

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Let us see? Stating the matter plainly in common terms,

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we may say that thinking is the mental process of

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one comparing our perceptions of things with each other, noting

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the points of likeness and of difference, two, classifying them

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according to the ascertained likeness or difference, and thus tying

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them up in mental bundles, with each set of things

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of a kind in its own bundle. Three, forming the

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abstract symbolic mental idea concept of each class of things

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so grouped that we may afterwards use, as we use

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figures in mathematical calculations. Four, using these concepts in order

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to form inferences, that is, to reason from the known

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to the unknown, and to form judgments regarding things, five,

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comparing these judgments and adducing higher judgments from them, and

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so on. Without thinking, man would be dependent upon each

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particular experience for his knowledge, except so far as memory

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and imagination could instinctively aid him. By thought processes, he

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is enable to infer that, if certain things be true

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of one of a certain kind of things, the same

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thing may be expected from others of the same class.

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As he is able to note points of likeness or difference,

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he is able to form clearer and truer inferences. In addition,

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he is able to apply his constructive imagination to the

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rearrangement and recombination of things whose nature he has discovered,

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and thus progress along the line of material achievement as

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well as of knowledge. It must be remembered, however, that

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the intellect depends entirely for its material upon the perception,

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which in turn receives its raw material from the senses.

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The intellect merely groups together the material of perception, makes inferences,

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draws conclusions from and forms conclusions regarding them, and, in

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the case of constructive imagination, recombines them in effective forms

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and arrangement. The intellect is the last in order of

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the course of mental evolution. It appears at last in

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order in the mind of the child, but it often

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persists in old age, after the feelings have grown dim

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and the memory weak. Concepts what is known as the concept,

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is the first fruit of the elemental processes of thought.

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The various images of outside objects are sensed, then perceived,

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and then grouped according to their likenesses and differences, and

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the result is a production of concepts. It is difficult

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to define a concept so as to convey any meaning

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to the beginner. For instance, the dictionaries give the definition

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as an abstract general conception, idea, or nation formed in

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the mind. Not very clear this is it. Perhaps we

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can understand it better if we say that the terms dog, cat, man, horse, house,

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et cetera. Each expresses a concept. Every term expresses a concept.

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Every general name of a thing or quality is a

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term applied to the concept. We shall see this a

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little clearer as we proceed. We form a concept in

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this way. One we perceive an of things. Two, Then

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we notice certain qualities possessed by things, certain properties, attributes,

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or characteristics which make the thing what it is. Three.

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Then we compare these qualities of the thing with the

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qualities of other things, and see that there is a

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likeness in some cases in various degrees and a difference

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in other cases in various degrees. Four. Then we generalize

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or classify the perceived things according to their ascertained likenesses

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and differences. Five. Then we form a general idea or

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concept embodying each class of thing. And finally we give

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to the concept a term or name, which is its symbol.

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The concept is a general idea of a class of things.

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The term is the expression of that general idea. The

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concept is the idea of a class of things. The

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term is the label affixed to the thing. To illustrate

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this last distinction, let us take the concept and term

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of bird, for instance. By perception, comparison, and classification of

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the qualities of living things, we have arrived at the

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conclusion that there exists a great general class, the qualities

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of which may be stated thus warm blooded, feathered, winged

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of viparous vertebrate. To this general class of quality possessing animals.

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We apply the English term bird. The name is merely

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a symbol. In German the term is fogel in Latin ABIs.

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But in each in every case, the general idea or

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concept above stated that is warm blooded, feathered, winged, oviparous

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vertebrate is meant. If anything is found having all those

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particular qualities, then we know it must be what we

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call a bird, and everything we call a bird must

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have those qualities. The term bird is the symbol for

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that particular combination of qualities existing in a thing. There

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is a difference between a mental image of the imagination

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and a concept. The mental image must always be of

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a particular thing, while a concept is always an idea

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of a general class of things which cannot be clearly

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pictured in the mind. For instance, the imagination may form

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a mental picture of any known bird, or even of

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an imaginary bird, but that bird always will be a distinct,

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particular bird. Try to form a mental image of a

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general class of birds. How would you do it? Do

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you realize the difficulty? First, such an image would have

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to include the characteristics of the large birds such as

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the eagle, ostrich and condor, and of the small birds

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such as the wren and humming bird. It must be

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a composite of the shape of all birds, from the

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ostrich swan, eagle crane down to the sparrow, swallow, and

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humming bird. It must picture the particular qualities of birds

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of prey, water birds, and domestic fowls, as well as

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the grain eaters. It must exhibit all the colors found

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in bird life, from the brightest reds and greens down

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to the sober grays and browns. A little thought will

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show that a clear mental image of such a concept

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is impossible. What the most of us do when we

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think of bird is the picture a vague flying shape

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of dull color. For when we shop to think that

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the term must also include the waddling duck and the

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scratching barnyard chicken, we see that our mental image is faulty.

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The trouble is that the term bird really means all bird,

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and we cannot picture an all bird from the very

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nature of the case. Our terms, therefore are like mathematical

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figures or algebraic symbols, which we use for ease, speed

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and clearness of thinking. The trouble does not end here.

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Concepts not only include the general idea of things, but

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also the general idea of the qualities of things. Thus sweetness, hardness, courage,

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and energy are concepts, for we cannot form a mental

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image of them by themselves. We may picture a sweet thing,

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but not sweetness itself. So you see that a concept

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is a purely abstract mental idea. A symbol akin to

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the figures one, two, three, et cetera, and used in

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the same way they stand for general classes of things.

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A term is the verbal and written expression of the

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general idea or concept. The student is requested to fix

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these distinctions in his mind so as to render future

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understanding of them easy. End of Chapter twenty Chapter twenty one.

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Concept the idea of conception has been well defined by

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Gaudy as that active mind by which it forms an

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idea of a class, or that act of the mind

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which enables us to use general names intelligently. He adds,

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it is of course understood that I am using the

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word class to denote an indefinite number of individuals that

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resemble each other in certain particulars. Perception. The first step

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in conception, as we have seen, is that of perception.

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It is readily perceived that the character of our intellectual

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processes depends materially upon the variety, clearness and accuracy of

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our perceptions. Therefore, again we would refer our students to

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the chapter in which we have stated the importance of

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clear perception memory. The future steps of conception depend materially

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upon the clearness of the memory, as we can classify

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objects only by remembering their qualities beyond the immediate moment

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of actual original perception. Therefore, the memory should be strengthened

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for this as well as other objects. Abstraction. The second

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step in conception is that of the mental abstraction of

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qualities from the observed thing. That is, we must perceive

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and then mentally set aside the observed qualities of the thing.

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For instance, man first perceived the existence of certain qualities

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in things. He found that a certain number of things

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possessed some of these qualities in common, while others possessed

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other qualities in the same way, and thus arose classification

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from comparison. But both comparison and classification are possible only

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by abstraction, or the perception of the quality as a thing. Thus,

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the abstraction of the idea of the quality of sweetness

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from the idea of sugar. Sweetness is equality. Rather than

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a thing itself, it is something possessed by sugar, which

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helps to make sugar what it is. Color, shape, size,

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mental qualities, habits of action. These are some of the

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qualities first observed in things and abstracted from them in thought. Redness, sweetness, hardness, softness, largeness, smallness, fragrance, swiftness, slowness, fierceness, gentleness, warmness, coldness,

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et cetera. These are abstracted qualities of things. Of course,

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these qualities are never really divorced from things, but the

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mind divorces them in order to make thinking easier. An

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authority says animals are incapable of making abstractions, and that

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is the reason why they cannot develop formal thought. Abstract

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thought is identical with rational thought, which is the characteristic

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feature of the thought of speaking beings. This is the

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reason why abstract thought is upon earth the exclusive property

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of man, and why brutes are incapable of abstract thought.

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The process of naming is the mechanism of abstraction, for

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names establish the mental independence of the objects named. The

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processes of abstraction depend upon attention. Concentrated attention attention directed

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to the qualities of a thing tends to abstract the

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qualities in thought from the thing itself. Mill says abstraction

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is primarily the result of attention. Hamilton says attention and

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abstraction are only the same process, viewed in different relations.

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Cultivation of the power of abstraction means, principally cultivation of attention.

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Any mental activity which tends towards analysis or separation of

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a thing into its parts, qualities, or elements will serve

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to cultivate and develop the power of abstraction. The habit

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of converting qualities into concepts is acquired by transforming adjective

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terms into their corresponding noun terms. For instance, a piece

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of colored candy possesses the qualities of being round, hard, red, sweet,

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et cetera. Transforming these adjective qualities into noun terms, we

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have the concepts of roundness, hardness, redness, and sweetness, respectively. Comparison.

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The third step in conception is that of comparison, in

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which the qualities of several things are compared or examined

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for likenesses and differences. We find many qualities in which

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several things differ, and a few in which there is

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a likeness. Classes are formed from resemblances or likenesses, while

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individuals are separated from apparent classes by detection of differences. Finally,

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it is found that separate things, while having many points

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difference which indicate their individuality, nevertheless have a few points

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of likeness which indicate that they belong to the same

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general family or class. The detection of likenesses and differences

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in the qualities of various things is an important mental process.

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Many of the higher thought processes depend largely upon the

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ability to compear things properly. The development of attention and

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perception tends to develop the power of comparison, classification, or generalization.

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The fourth step in conception is that of classification or generalization,

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whereby we place individual things in a mental bundle or class,

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and then this bundle, in company with other bundles, into

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a higher class, and so on. Thus we grip all

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the individual small birds having certain characteristics into a species,

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then several related species into a larger family, and this

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into a still larger and to as we finally grip

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all the bird families into the great concept which we

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call birds, and of which the simple term bird expresses

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the general concept. Jevons says, we classify things together whenever

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we observe that they are like each other in any respect,

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and therefore think of them together. In classifying a collection

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of objects, we do not merely put together into groups

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those which resemble each other, but we also divide each

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class into smaller ones in which the resemblance is more complete. Thus,

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the class of white substances may be divided into those

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which are solid and those which are fluid, so that

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we get the two minor classes of solid white and

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fluid white. It is desirable to have names by which

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to show that one class is contained in another, and

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accordingly we call the class which is divided into two

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or more smaller species, the genus, and the smaller ones

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into which it is divided the species. Every species is

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a small family of the individuals composing it, and at

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the same time is an individual species of the genus

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just above it. The genus, in turn, is a family

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of several species, and at the same time an individual

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genus in a greater family or genus above it. The

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student may familiarize himself with the idea of generalization by

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considering himself as an individual. John Smith John represents that

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unit of generalization. The next step is to combine John

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with the other Smiths of his immediate family. Then this

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family may be gripped with his near blood relations, and

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so on, until finally all the related Smiths near and

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remote are grouped together in a great Smith family. Or

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in the same way, the family group may be enlarged

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until it takes in all the white people in a county,

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then all the white people in the state, then all

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in the United States, then all the white races, then

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all the white and other light skinned races, then all mankind. Then,

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if one is inclined, the process may be continued until

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it embraces every living creature, from Monaron to man. Reversing

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the process, living creatures may be divided and subdivided until

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all mankind is seen to stand as a class. Then

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the race of man may be divided into sub races

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according to colour. Then the white race may be subdivided

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into Americans and non Americans, and the Americans may be

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divided into the inhabitants of the several States, or into

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Indianans or non Indianans, then into the inhabitants of the

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several counties of Indiana, and thus the posey countians are reached.

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Then the posey county people are divided into Smiths and nonsmiths,

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then the Smith family into its constituent family groups, and

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then into the smaller families, and so on, until the

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classification reaches one particular John Smith, who at last is

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found to be an individual in a class by himself.

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This is the story of the ascending and descending processes

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of generalization.