Speaker 1: Hello, and welcome to Western SIV, episode four hundred and
Speaker 1: forty six Louis the Thirteenth. Now, don't let the title
Speaker 1: of the episode fool you. I'm actually going to talk
Speaker 1: about a variety of rising kingdom and nation states in
Speaker 1: this episode. Louis the Thirteenth, however, is the first monarch
Speaker 1: that we're going to discuss as we start to bring
Speaker 1: the other parts of Europe up to speed as the
Speaker 1: Thirty Years War has been raging. Now, as you may recall,
Speaker 1: back in sixteen ten, Henri the fourth Henry of Navarre
Speaker 1: had won the protracted civil war and begun the Bourbon dynasty. Unfortunately,
Speaker 1: the quote unquote good King Henry was assassinated by a monk.
Speaker 1: His young son, Louis the thirteenth, barely a child, quite frankly,
Speaker 1: was thrust onto the throne. The reigns of power, however,
Speaker 1: clearly didn't go to this child king. Instead, they fell
Speaker 1: to his mother, Marie de Medici. She was a woman
Speaker 1: of Italian temperament, She was ambitious, She was related, of course,
Speaker 1: to Catherine de Medici, and her regency proved to be
Speaker 1: a whirlwind of shifting alliances and treacherous intrigue. Powerful nobles
Speaker 1: accustomed to wielding influence, tended to feel uncomfortable under the
Speaker 1: period of her rule. The Duke of Sully, Henry the
Speaker 1: Fourth's trusted advisor, a man of stern integrity, found himself
Speaker 1: increasingly sidelined at court, his voice muted. Now foreign power,
Speaker 1: sensing weakness, started to circle. Chief among them, of course,
Speaker 1: was Spain. Spain was the great rival of the Kingdom
Speaker 1: of France throughout the early modern period, and it saw
Speaker 1: an opportunity to exploit the internal divisions that were now
Speaker 1: gripping the kingdom. This happens typically anytime a child is
Speaker 1: on the throne. Amidst all these chaos, however, a young
Speaker 1: cleric that we've already talked about, Cardinal Richelieu, began to rise.
Speaker 1: Cardinal Richelieu was an extremely intelligent young man and a
Speaker 1: young man of unwavering ambition. He was able to very
Speaker 1: quickly climb the ladder and become essentially the chief adviser
Speaker 1: to both Marie de Medici, but then also the young
Speaker 1: king Louis the thirteenth. As Louis the thirteenth matured, he
Speaker 1: began to assert his authority. He was a man who
Speaker 1: say somewhat reserved temperament, and it was often just simply
Speaker 1: overshadowed by some of the bigger personalities that surround him
Speaker 1: at court. But he was a calm and capable leader,
Speaker 1: and he keenly understood the dangers which were currently besetting
Speaker 1: the kingdom. More and more throughout his reign, he turned
Speaker 1: to Cardinal Richelieu for council and to help him manage
Speaker 1: the affairs of state. Rieselieu, who quickly became the king's
Speaker 1: chief minister, embarked on a mission to restore order to
Speaker 1: the kingdom and strengthen the crown. Remember, France had exited
Speaker 1: the sixteenth century in early seventeenth centuries, coming through a
Speaker 1: period of protracted civil war between the Catholic majority and
Speaker 1: the Huguenot minority. Richelieu acted decisively, ruthlessly, crushing rebellions both
Speaker 1: from the rebellious Huguenots and from powerful nobles who dared
Speaker 1: to challenge royal authorities. He was able to recapture the
Speaker 1: city of La Rochelle. It was the last Hugo stronghold
Speaker 1: and came back under the control of the monarchy thanks
Speaker 1: to the iron will of Cardinal Richelieu. Now the thirty
Speaker 1: years War, of course, is raging during this time period
Speaker 1: and engulfed much of the continent. As we know, thirty
Speaker 1: years War also provided Richelieu with an opportunity. He skillfully
Speaker 1: maneuvered France into the Fray, not as a religious participant,
Speaker 1: but more as a pragmatic player on an increasingly complicated
Speaker 1: European chessboard. His goal was clear. It had nothing to
Speaker 1: do with Protestant or Catholic, Calvinist or Lutheran. He wanted
Speaker 1: to weaken the Habsburg dynasty, both in Spain and in Germany,
Speaker 1: because that was the eternal enemy of France, and quite frankly,
Speaker 1: as we know, he succeeded decisively in that goal, showing
Speaker 1: again that pragmatism in Europe had now by and large
Speaker 1: replaced religious z deal Now, by the time that Louis
Speaker 1: the thirteenth died in sixteen forty three, the French monarchy
Speaker 1: had been by and large transformed, and much of that
Speaker 1: had to do with Cardinal Richelieu and then his successor
Speaker 1: I'll talk more about next time. Cardinal Mazarine critically the
Speaker 1: foundation of absolutism, an absolute monarchy, which is going to
Speaker 1: be a quarterstone of the balance of French monarchical history
Speaker 1: had now been laid. However, this period of consolidation came
Speaker 1: at a high cost. France had emerged as a formidable
Speaker 1: power on the European stage, sure, but there had been
Speaker 1: a cost, a lot of human suffering and critically a
Speaker 1: massively drained treasury, and that's going to be an issue
Speaker 1: for France and quite frankly every early modern state going forward.
Speaker 1: And so the reign of Louis the thirteenth was a
Speaker 1: period of transition. It was a time of both triumph
Speaker 1: and turmoil. It was an era that's going to shape
Speaker 1: the arc of France going forward, laid the groundwork for
Speaker 1: a lot of the successes that were to come under
Speaker 1: Louis the thirteenth successor, of course, the best known of
Speaker 1: all of our French monarchs, Louis the fourteenth, the son King,
Speaker 1: and will be getting to him in future episodes. But next,
Speaker 1: after a few messages, we're going to turn to Spain
Speaker 1: and catch up to see how that faction of the
Speaker 1: Habsburg monarchy had been functioning while the Thirty Years War
Speaker 1: was raging. The death of Philip the Second in fifteen
Speaker 1: ninety eight marks the end of an era for Spain.
Speaker 1: Under Philip, Spain had risen to the apex of its
Speaker 1: global power, rolling a vast empire that spanned Europe, the Americas,
Speaker 1: and Asia. Yet his passing also revealed the fragility of
Speaker 1: the empire's foundations, burdened by financial strain, military over extension,
Speaker 1: and emerging powerful rivals, chief among them France. The subsequent
Speaker 1: reigns of his successors, Philip the Third, who reigned from
Speaker 1: fifteen ninety eight to sixteen twenty one, then Philip the Fourth,
Speaker 1: who reigned from sixteen twenty one to sixteen sixty five,
Speaker 1: would be marked by increasingly failing attempts to maintain Spain's
Speaker 1: control and dominance in Europe amid mounting challenges. Philip the
Speaker 1: Third's reign was characterized by a constant reliance on court favorites,
Speaker 1: most notably the Duke of Lerma, who tended to dominate
Speaker 1: the administration. Seeking to address Spain's increasingly financial state, which
Speaker 1: was poor to say least, Lerna implemented a policy of retrenchment.
Speaker 1: This included the Peace of London in sixteen oh four
Speaker 1: with England and a twelve years truce in sixteen oh
Speaker 1: nine with the Dutch temporarily at least pausing costly conflicts. However,
Speaker 1: Spain's domestic policy was marred in sixteen oh nine by
Speaker 1: the expulsion of the Moriscos. These were Muslims who had
Speaker 1: been forcibly converted to Christianity. This caused immediate and significant
Speaker 1: economic dislocation, particularly in the regions of Valencia and Aragon,
Speaker 1: where Mauriscos had played a vital role in agriculture. In
Speaker 1: sixteen twenty one, Philip the Fourth ascended the throne, bringing
Speaker 1: with him a renewed ambition for Spain to reclaim its
Speaker 1: dominance in Europe. His favorite, the Count Duke of Olivarees,
Speaker 1: became the driving force now behind Spanish policy. Olivares was
Speaker 1: a visionary reformer, advocating for what he called the Union
Speaker 1: of Arms, a plan to essentially centralize military contributions from
Speaker 1: across Spain's diverse and vast territories. However, this policy did
Speaker 1: nothing but provoke resistance, particularly in Catalonia and Portugal, and
Speaker 1: would have long term consequences for Spanish unities. The renewal
Speaker 1: of hostilities at the Dutch in sixteen twenty one marked
Speaker 1: the beginning of the Eighty Years War phase. Despite initial successes,
Speaker 1: such as the capture of Breta in sixteen twenty five,
Speaker 1: the Dutch were simply too resistant. The war drained Spain's
Speaker 1: resources and strained its overburdened treasury. As we know, Spain's
Speaker 1: involvement in the Thirty Years War, which began as a
Speaker 1: dynastic struggle within the Holy Roman Empire, further compounded these challenges.
Speaker 1: As a staunch defender of Catholicism, Spain supported the Austrian
Speaker 1: Habsburgs and intervened directly in the conflict, dispatching troops to
Speaker 1: aid its allies and protect its interest in the Rhineland
Speaker 1: and beyond. The early years of the Thirty Years War
Speaker 1: saw Spanish forces achieved significant victories such as the Battle
Speaker 1: of White Mountain we talked about many episodes ago, and
Speaker 1: began the occupation of key territories in northern Germany. However,
Speaker 1: as we know, the tide began to turn in the
Speaker 1: sixteen thirties. France, under Cardinal Richelieu, entered the war in
Speaker 1: sixteen thirty five as an effort to curb Habsburg power.
Speaker 1: The Franco Spanish War ensued, opening a new front that
Speaker 1: overstretched Spain's military and financial capabilities. At the same time,
Speaker 1: internal revolts erupted within the Spanish monarchy. The Catalan Revolt,
Speaker 1: which lasted from sixteen forty all the way to sixteen
Speaker 1: fifty nine, and the Portuguese Restoration War, which lasted from
Speaker 1: sixteen forty same year sixteen sixty eight, underscored the fragility
Speaker 1: of Olivarre's centralization efforts. Now, despite all of these setbacks
Speaker 1: and challenges, Spain remained a formidable power. Its armies continued
Speaker 1: to fight valiantly across Europe, and its navy, though challenged
Speaker 1: by Dutch and English rivals, maintained a significant presence. Yet,
Speaker 1: by the Treaty of Westphalia in sixteen forty eight, Spain's
Speaker 1: decline as Europe's pre eminent power was undeniable. The treaty
Speaker 1: ended both the Thirty Years War and Spain's war with
Speaker 1: the Dutch, formally finally recognizing the independence of the Dutch Republic.
Speaker 1: The law signified a profound shift in the European balance
Speaker 1: of power, with France now emerging as Spain's principal rival
Speaker 1: and the more dominant of the two. The period between
Speaker 1: Philip the Second's death and the Treaty of Westphalia encapsulates
Speaker 1: the complexities of Spain's imperial decline. Faced with the twin
Speaker 1: pressures of external conflicts and internal unrest, Spain's leaders struggled
Speaker 1: to adapt to the changing geopolitical landscape. While the Empire's
Speaker 1: global reach and cultural achievements continued, its position as the
Speaker 1: dominant European power faded, giving way to the era of
Speaker 1: French ascendancy. Now. While there are reasons for Spain's overall
Speaker 1: decline remain complex, I think there are a few major
Speaker 1: points worth noting. Domestic policy was marred by the sixteen
Speaker 1: to oh nine expulsion of the Mariscos and caused significant
Speaker 1: economic dislocation, particularly in the field of agriculture. Vulson made
Speaker 1: an already fragile Spanish economy even more wobbly. Then, of course,
Speaker 1: you have conflict. You have the Thirty Years War, coupled
Speaker 1: with the Catalan Revolt and the Portuguese Restoration War, which
Speaker 1: made it difficult for Spain to continue their centralization efforts
Speaker 1: and drained an already depleted treasury. Truly, by the year
Speaker 1: sixteen fifty, Spain's time and the sun had come to
Speaker 1: an end. Up next, we check back in with southeastern
Speaker 1: Europe and the Ottomans, but that will be right after this.
Speaker 1: The period between fifteen fifty and sixteen fifty marked a
Speaker 1: really transformative century for the Autumncemans. Really, the empire reached
Speaker 1: its apex as a global power and frankly started its
Speaker 1: downward slope. The empire, ruled by a succession of sultans
Speaker 1: during this time, rappled with both monumental achievements and significant trials.
Speaker 1: As we know, the mid sixteenth century was the period
Speaker 1: during which the Ottoman Empire was ruled by probably their
Speaker 1: greatest sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent. Though Suleiman died in fifteen
Speaker 1: sixty six, his policies and conquests continued to influence the
Speaker 1: Empire's fortunes well into the latter half of the century.
Speaker 1: By fifteen fifty, the Ottoman Empire controlled a vast swath
Speaker 1: of territory, stretching from the Balkans and Hungary in the west,
Speaker 1: to Iraq and the Arabian Peninsula in the east, and
Speaker 1: from North Africa into the Black Sea. This dominance was
Speaker 1: bolstered by naval supremacy in the Mediterranean, as demonstrated in
Speaker 1: earlier victories like the capture of Rhodes back in fifteen
Speaker 1: twenty two, and their continuing presence in Algiers and Tripoli.
Speaker 1: Suleiman's immediate successors, Selim the Second and Marad the Third,
Speaker 1: inherited a powerful state, but like any empire, they faced
Speaker 1: the challenge of maintaining its fast frontiers. Selim the Second,
Speaker 1: often disparaged in Ottoman sources for lack of military ambition,
Speaker 1: is notable for overseeing the Battle of Laponto in fifteen
Speaker 1: seventy one, a confrontation between the Ottoman fleet and a
Speaker 1: Christian coalition led by the Holy League in critically Spain.
Speaker 1: While the Ottomans suffered a significant naval defeat, they quickly
Speaker 1: reloaded and rebuilt their fleet, demonstrating resilience and continuing honestly
Speaker 1: to dominate the eastern Mediterranean. During the later decade of
Speaker 1: the sixteenth century, the empire extended its reach further east
Speaker 1: into the Caucuses and maintained pressure on the Habsburgs in
Speaker 1: Central Europe. The Long Turkish War, which lasted from fifteen
Speaker 1: ninety three to sixteen oh six, was a drawn out
Speaker 1: conflict with the Habsburg monarchy and ultimately revealed the final
Speaker 1: limits of Ottoman expansion. In Europe. Although the Treaty of
Speaker 1: Vladistok in sixteen oh six confirmed the Ottoman's control over
Speaker 1: much of Hungary, it marked a shift towards a more
Speaker 1: defensive posture for the Empire in European affairs. By sixteen hundred,
Speaker 1: the Ottoman Empire was no longer the unified juggernaut of
Speaker 1: earlier decades. Internal political struggles, financial instability, and the strain
Speaker 1: of prolonged warfare began to take their toll. The dev
Speaker 1: Shermise system, which had supplied the empire with its elite
Speaker 1: janissary troops, began to show signs of inefficiency and corruption. Meanwhile,
Speaker 1: the central government increasingly relied on tax farming, leading to
Speaker 1: abuses that alienated rural populations and weakened state revenues. The
Speaker 1: reign of Ahmed the First from sixteen oh three to
Speaker 1: sixteen seventeen was emblematic of this transitional period. Ahmed sought
Speaker 1: to stabilize the empire through diplomacy and administrative reforms. His
Speaker 1: decision to halt the policy of fratricide among princes and
Speaker 1: instead confine rival claimants in the cage cafes fundamentally changed
Speaker 1: Ottoman succession practices, though it also contributed to the rise
Speaker 1: of less experienced sultans in the future. During Ahmed's reign,
Speaker 1: the Empire continued to face challenges from Safavid Persia in
Speaker 1: the east. The Treaty of Nashu Pasha temporarily ended hostilities
Speaker 1: in sixteen twelve, but underscored the struggle for dominance in
Speaker 1: the region, particularly in the Caucasus. The seventeenth century ushered
Speaker 1: in a series of crises that tested the resilience of
Speaker 1: the Ottoman state. The earlier decades were marked by political
Speaker 1: instability and the increasing influence of the janissaries, as well
Speaker 1: as pallas factions led by queen mothers and other court figures.
Speaker 1: The reigns of Mustapha the First and Usman the Second,
Speaker 1: who combined ruled from sixteen seventeen to sixteen twenty two,
Speaker 1: were particularly tumultuous. Usman the Second, a reform minded ruler,
Speaker 1: sought to curtail the power of the janissaries, but as
Speaker 1: a result was ultimately overthrown and executed by the same
Speaker 1: janissary corps in a coup. The sixteen twenties and sixteen
Speaker 1: thirties witnessed the Ottomans embroiled in The Ottoman Safavid War
Speaker 1: flasted from sixteen twenty three to sixteen thirty nine, a
Speaker 1: grueling conflict centered around what is today much of modern Iraq.
Speaker 1: The war ended with the Treaty of Zuhab in sixteen
Speaker 1: thirty nine, and that actually establishes today what are the
Speaker 1: modern borders between Iraq and Iran and reaffirmed Ottoman control
Speaker 1: over Baghdad, solidifying its control on the region. Despite these
Speaker 1: external challenges, the Empire remained a formidable power. Under Saltan
Speaker 1: Marad four, who ruled from sixteen twenty three to sixteen forty,
Speaker 1: the Ottomans experienced a brief resurgence. Mirad, known for his
Speaker 1: autocratic rule and military campaigns, successfully quelled internal descent and
Speaker 1: personally led campaigns to retake Baghdad in sixteen thirty eight.
Speaker 1: His reign was also marked by efforts to curb corruption
Speaker 1: and restore the authority of the sultanate. However, the final
Speaker 1: years of this period highlighted the deep seated structural issues
Speaker 1: facing the empire. The Little Ice Age, a period of
Speaker 1: climactic cooling up to agriculture and contributed to famines and
Speaker 1: rural unrest. Additionally, the growing dependence on foreign trade, coupled
Speaker 1: with inflation driven by the influx of New World silver,
Speaker 1: destabilized the Ottoman economy Overall. Between fifteen fifty and sixteen fifty,
Speaker 1: the Ottoman Empire transitioned from a zenith of territorial and
Speaker 1: cultural power to an early modern state grappling with the
Speaker 1: realities of managing a vast, multi ethnic empire and in
Speaker 1: evolving global context. While the Ottomans remained a pre eminent power,
Speaker 1: challenges from within and without increasingly demanded adaptation. The legacy
Speaker 1: of this century would be a more defensive and inward
Speaker 1: looking empire, laying the groundwork for the struggles and transformations
Speaker 1: of the centuries to follow up. Next, we cover the
Speaker 1: time of troubles in Russia right after this. As we
Speaker 1: know in fifteen eighty four, the death of Czar Ivan
Speaker 1: the Fourth, known to history as Ivan the Terrible and
Speaker 1: remember he earned that name, left the Russian state in
Speaker 1: a precarious position. Ivan's ruthless consolidation of power had created
Speaker 1: a centralized but fragile autocracy. His purges and military campaigns
Speaker 1: had devastated the nobility and the broader population, leaving a
Speaker 1: power vacuum that his son and successor, Fyodor the First,
Speaker 1: was not very well equipped to fill Fyodor, a gentle
Speaker 1: and pious man, lacked the capacity to govern effectively. As
Speaker 1: a result, real power fell into the hands of his
Speaker 1: brother in law, chief adviser Boris Gudanov. Bordis Gutanov ruled
Speaker 1: as regent and all but name during Fyodor's reign. When
Speaker 1: Fyodor died in fifteen ninety eight, without an heir, the
Speaker 1: centuries old Rurik dynasty came to an end. Gutanov managed
Speaker 1: to have himself elected Czar by the National Assembly, becoming
Speaker 1: the first non Rurkid ruler of Russia. Despite his initial popularity,
Speaker 1: his reign was plagued by disaster. In sixteen oh one,
Speaker 1: Russia was struck by a catastrophic famine caused by unusually
Speaker 1: cold summers. Part of the broader climactic anomaly known as
Speaker 1: the Little Ice Age. Crops failed, leading to mass starvation, disease,
Speaker 1: and social unrest. The famine killed hundreds of thousands, further
Speaker 1: undermining Boris's authority. Dnov's attempts to maintain control were met
Speaker 1: with resistance from the boyars. Those are again the nobles
Speaker 1: in Russia and peasants alike. His harsh policies and use
Speaker 1: of state force alienated many, while rumor circulated blaming him
Speaker 1: for the mysterious death of Ivan the Terrible's youngest son,
Speaker 1: Dmitri Ivanovitch, who had died as a child in fifteen
Speaker 1: ninety one under suspicious circumstances. Amid all this discontent, in
Speaker 1: sixteen oh four, a pretender to the throne emerged, claiming
Speaker 1: to be said deceased Dmitri. This figure, known to history
Speaker 1: as the first False Dmitri, gained backing from Poland and
Speaker 1: other Catholic factions. Eager to exploit Russia's instability, he promised
Speaker 1: to restore Dmitri's rightful claim to the throne and convert
Speaker 1: Russia to Catholicism. With Polish mercenaries and the support of
Speaker 1: discontented Russians, the False Dmitri marched on Moscow. When Boris
Speaker 1: Gudenov suddenly died in sixteen oh four, his son in
Speaker 1: Airfiodor the Second, briefly inherited the throne, but was quickly
Speaker 1: overthrown and murdered. The False Dmitri entered Moscow and was
Speaker 1: crowned Tzar, marking the first time that the pretender had
Speaker 1: successfully claimed the Russian throne. However, the new Tsar's rule
Speaker 1: quickly unraveled. His Polish allies and foreign Catholic advisors, alienated
Speaker 1: the Orthodox population, and his reliance on unorthodox practices further
Speaker 1: eroded his legitimacy. In sixteen o six, he was overthrown
Speaker 1: and killed in a coup led by the Boyar Balisi Shuski,
Speaker 1: who proclaimed himself Czar Tzar Baliski. The fourth Shushki's reign
Speaker 1: from sixteen oh six to sixteen ten was no less tumultuous.
Speaker 1: His power was weak, and his rule was contested by
Speaker 1: another wave of impostors and rebels. Chief among them was
Speaker 1: the now second Faults Dmitri Because why would I have
Speaker 1: said there was a first if there wasn't a second?
Speaker 1: He emerged in southern Russia, rallying support among the Cossacks, peasants,
Speaker 1: and disgruntled nobles. Meanwhile, Belissi faced the wrath of the
Speaker 1: Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, which saw chaos in Russia as an
Speaker 1: opportunity to expand its influence. In sixteen oh nine, Poland
Speaker 1: formally intervened, laying siege to the city of Smolensk and
Speaker 1: eventually occupying Moscow in sixteen ten. The Poles then installed
Speaker 1: their own puppet ruler, Ladysaw of the Fourth, a Prince
Speaker 1: of Poland, onto the Russian throne. This foreign occupation was
Speaker 1: deeply resented by the Russian population and the Russian Orthodox Church,
Speaker 1: fueling widespread uprisings. The Boyars, divided and weakened by years
Speaker 1: of infighting, were unable to mount a unified response. Then,
Speaker 1: by sixteen eleven, Russian resistance coalesced around a movement led
Speaker 1: by two really unlikely leaders, Kuzmon Mini, a merchant from Novgorod,
Speaker 1: and Prince Dmitri Praski, a noble military commander. Together they
Speaker 1: raised what was in effect a volunteer army to liberate
Speaker 1: Moscow from Polish control. In sixteen twelve, their forces stormed
Speaker 1: into the Krenlin and expelled Polish garrisons. This victory, though
Speaker 1: hard won, did not immediately restore stability. In the wake
Speaker 1: of these events, another assembly was convened in sixteen thirteen
Speaker 1: to restore order and select a Newzar. The assembly elected
Speaker 1: Michael Romanov, a young Boyar with ties to the former
Speaker 1: ruling Defy dynasty and a reputation untainted by the chaos
Speaker 1: of the previous decades, which are referred to in the
Speaker 1: history books, by the way, as the Time of Troubles.
Speaker 1: Now his election, I'm sure many of you recognized the
Speaker 1: last name marked the beginning of the Romanov dynasty, the
Speaker 1: Romanov dynasty which is going to rule Russia for over
Speaker 1: three hundred years until we get to World War One.
Speaker 1: The Time of Troubles left a deep scar on Russian society.
Speaker 1: The period was marked by widespread suffering, a dramatic population
Speaker 1: decline due to Faminine War, and the erosion of central authority. However,
Speaker 1: it also highlighted the resilience of the Russian state and
Speaker 1: its people. The events of this era underscored the need
Speaker 1: for a strong, centralized monarchy to maintain order in such
Speaker 1: a vast and diverse empire. The Romanovs, learning from the
Speaker 1: failures of their predecessors, gradually rebuilt the state, laying the
Speaker 1: groundwork for Russia's emergence as a major European power in
Speaker 1: the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. And this, my friends, brings
Speaker 1: the rest of Europe up to date circa the year
Speaker 1: sixteen fifty, with the exception of England and the British Isles.
Speaker 1: Will be turning to that in a couple of episodes
Speaker 1: time here. I have a large episode coming on that one. However,
Speaker 1: in the interim, what we're going to do now is
Speaker 1: actually shift across the Atlantic, because you see, throughout this
Speaker 1: time period there has been developing a whole new patchworks
Speaker 1: of civilizations across the Americas, and I think it's high
Speaker 1: time that we start to talk about them.