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<v Speaker 1>Section twenty six of Sun, Moon and Stars Astronomy for Beginners.

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<v Speaker 1>This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in

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<v Speaker 1>the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please

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<v Speaker 1>visit LibriVox dot org. Read by Bill Welch, Sun Moon

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<v Speaker 1>and Stars Astronomy for Beginners by Agnes Gibern. The Milky Way,

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<v Speaker 1>who knoweth not in all these that the hand of

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<v Speaker 1>the Lord hath wrought this job twelve, line nine. One

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<v Speaker 1>star differeth from another star In Glory Corinthians fifteen, line

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<v Speaker 1>forty one. The Milky Way forms a soft band of

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<v Speaker 1>light round the whole heavens. In the southern hemisphere, as

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<v Speaker 1>in the northern hemisphere, it is to be seen. In

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<v Speaker 1>some parts the band narrows, in some parts it widens.

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<v Speaker 1>Here it divides into two branches. There we find dark

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<v Speaker 1>spaces in its mists. One such space in the south

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<v Speaker 1>is to the naked eyes, so black and almost starless

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<v Speaker 1>as to have been named the coal Sack. But photography

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<v Speaker 1>shows abundance of stars to lie there. Also, all along

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<v Speaker 1>over the background of soft dim light lies a scattering

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<v Speaker 1>of brighter stars shining on its surface. Much interest and

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<v Speaker 1>curiosity have long been felt about this mysterious milky Way.

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<v Speaker 1>That it consists of innumerable suns, and that our sun

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<v Speaker 1>is one among them has been believed for a considerable time.

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<v Speaker 1>But other questions arise. How many stars does the Milky

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<v Speaker 1>Way contain? What is its shape? How far does it reach?

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<v Speaker 1>No harm in asking the questions only we have to

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<v Speaker 1>be satisfied in astronomy. To ask many questions which cannot

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<v Speaker 1>yet receive answers. No harm for man to learn that

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<v Speaker 1>the utmost reach of his intellect must fall short in

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<v Speaker 1>any attempt to sound the depths of the universe, even

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<v Speaker 1>as the arm of a child would fall short in

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<v Speaker 1>seeking to sound the depths of the ocean over the

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<v Speaker 1>side of a little boat. For attempts had been made

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<v Speaker 1>to sound the depths of our star galaxy out of

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<v Speaker 1>this little earth boat. The idea first occurred to the

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<v Speaker 1>great Herschell, and a grand idea, it was only a

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<v Speaker 1>hopeless one. He turned his powerful telescope north south east west.

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<v Speaker 1>He counted the stars visible at one time in this

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<v Speaker 1>in that in the other directions he found a marked

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<v Speaker 1>difference in the numbers. The portions of sky seen through

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<v Speaker 1>his telescope was about one quarter the size of that

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<v Speaker 1>covered by the moon. Sometimes he could merely perceive two

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<v Speaker 1>or three bright points on a black background. At other

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<v Speaker 1>times the field of his his telescope was crowded. In

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<v Speaker 1>the fuller portions of the Milky Way, he had four

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<v Speaker 1>or five hundred stars under view at once. In one place,

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<v Speaker 1>he saw about one hundred and sixteen thousand stars pass

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<v Speaker 1>before him in a single quarter of an hour. Herschel

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<v Speaker 1>took it for granted that the stars of the Milky Way,

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<v Speaker 1>uncountable in numbers, are as a rule, much the same

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<v Speaker 1>in size. So the brightest stars would as a rule

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<v Speaker 1>be nearest, and dimmest stars would, as a rule be

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<v Speaker 1>furthest off where he found stars clustering thickly beyond his

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<v Speaker 1>power to penetrate, he believed that the Milky Way reached

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<v Speaker 1>very far in that direction, where he found black space

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<v Speaker 1>unlighted by stars or lighted by few stars. He decided

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<v Speaker 1>that he had found the borders of our galaxy in

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<v Speaker 1>that direction. Following these rules which he had laid down,

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<v Speaker 1>he made a sort of rough sketch of what he

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<v Speaker 1>sow posed might be the shape of the Milky Way.

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<v Speaker 1>He thought it was somewhat flat, extending to a good

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<v Speaker 1>distance breadth wise and a much greater distance lengthwise, and

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<v Speaker 1>he placed our Sun not far from the middle. This

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<v Speaker 1>imagined shape of the Milky Way is called the cloven

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<v Speaker 1>disk theory. To explain the appearance of the Milky Way

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<v Speaker 1>in the sky, Herschel supposed it to be a cloven

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<v Speaker 1>or split through half of its length, with a black

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<v Speaker 1>space between the two split parts. It seems that Herschel

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<v Speaker 1>did not hold strongly to this idea in later years,

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<v Speaker 1>and the rules on which he formed it no longer

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<v Speaker 1>hold good. For how do we know that the stars

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<v Speaker 1>of the Milky Way are as a rule much the

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<v Speaker 1>same in size? Certainly the planets of the Solar System

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<v Speaker 1>are very far from being uniform, and the few stars

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<v Speaker 1>whose weight can with any certainty be measured seem to

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<v Speaker 1>vary considerably. There is a great difference also between the

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<v Speaker 1>large and small suns in many of the double stars. Again,

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<v Speaker 1>although bright stars undoubtedly are as a rule, the nearest

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<v Speaker 1>and dim stars furthest off, there are many exceptions. Look

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<v Speaker 1>at Sirius and sixteen one Signy Sirious, the most radiant

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<v Speaker 1>star in the heavens, and sixty one Signey almost invisible

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<v Speaker 1>to the naked eye. According to this rule, sixteen one

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<v Speaker 1>Signey ought to lie at an enormous distance beyond Sirius.

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<v Speaker 1>Yet in actual fact serious is the further away of

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<v Speaker 1>the two. For ought we know there may be many

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<v Speaker 1>small telescopic stars, much nearer to us than many of

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<v Speaker 1>the brighter stars, which we can plainly see with the

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<v Speaker 1>naked eye, and only invisible without the help of the

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<v Speaker 1>telescope because of their smallness, not so much because of

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<v Speaker 1>their distance. This line of reasoning shows how we easily

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<v Speaker 1>mistakes may have been made in a matter of no

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<v Speaker 1>slight importance. Some chapters back, I spoke of the light

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<v Speaker 1>traveling to us from far distant stars, stars so distant

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<v Speaker 1>that their light must have taken thousands of years to

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<v Speaker 1>reach us. Only there is no must we do not

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<v Speaker 1>actually know the fact. A writer says, the illustrious Herschel

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<v Speaker 1>penetrated on one occasion into this spot, the star cluster

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<v Speaker 1>of the sword hand in the constellation of Perseus, until

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<v Speaker 1>he found himself among the depths, whose light could not

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<v Speaker 1>have reached him in less than four thousand years. So

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<v Speaker 1>Herschel believed, But he did not know. There is no

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<v Speaker 1>certain could not in the matter. The distance of those

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<v Speaker 1>stars had not and has not been mathematically measured. Herschel

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<v Speaker 1>judge of it by their dimness, by the strong power

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<v Speaker 1>needed to make them visible, and by the rules which

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<v Speaker 1>he had adopted as most likely true. This was no

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<v Speaker 1>sure mode of judging. The stars might be as far

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<v Speaker 1>distanced as he is supposed. On the other hand, they

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<v Speaker 1>might be very much nearer, if too far for our

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<v Speaker 1>measuring line to reach them. They may be only just

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<v Speaker 1>too far, and their seeming smallness and dimness, instead of

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<v Speaker 1>being caused by vast reaches of space between, may simply

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<v Speaker 1>be caused by actual smallness or actual dimness. There are

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<v Speaker 1>little suns as well as great suns in the Milky Way.

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<v Speaker 1>It is possible that hundreds of little suns may exist

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<v Speaker 1>for every single specimen of a great sun. Again, when

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<v Speaker 1>Herschel found black spaces in the heavens almost void of stars,

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<v Speaker 1>and believed that he had reached the outside borders of

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<v Speaker 1>the Milky Way, he might be right, or he might

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<v Speaker 1>be mistaken. The limit might lie there, or thousands more

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<v Speaker 1>of small stars might extend in that very direction, too

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<v Speaker 1>far off for their little glimmer to be seen through

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<v Speaker 1>the most powerful telescope. A good deal of attention has

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<v Speaker 1>been paid to the arrangement of stars in the skies.

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<v Speaker 1>The more the matter is looked into, the more it

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<v Speaker 1>appears that stars are neither regular in size nor regular

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<v Speaker 1>in distribution. It would seem that they are not flung

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<v Speaker 1>broadcast through the heavens, each one alone and independent of

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<v Speaker 1>the rest. They are placed, often, as they have already seen,

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<v Speaker 1>in pairs, in triplets, in quartets, in clusters. Also, the

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<v Speaker 1>great masses of them in the heavens seem to be

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<v Speaker 1>more or less arranged in streams and sprays and spirals.

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<v Speaker 1>It should, however, be understood, that what may look to

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<v Speaker 1>us like streams or spirals may in reality be nothing

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<v Speaker 1>of the kind. Distance is very deceptive. Even on Earth.

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<v Speaker 1>Any object far off may appeared to be close to

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<v Speaker 1>another object from which it is really separated by many miles.

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<v Speaker 1>And if this is so on our little Earth, how

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<v Speaker 1>much more easily may one be mistaken in celestial landscapes.

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<v Speaker 1>We must now try to form a few clear ideas

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<v Speaker 1>about the richer and poorer parts of the heavens as

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<v Speaker 1>viewed from Earth. In considering stars of the first six magnitudes,

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<v Speaker 1>only stars visible to the naked eye. A somewhat larger

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<v Speaker 1>number is found in the southern hemisphere than in the

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<v Speaker 1>northern hemisphere. In both hemispheres there are regions densely crowded

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<v Speaker 1>with stars in regions, by comparison, almost empty. It has

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<v Speaker 1>been long question whether the number of bright stars is

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<v Speaker 1>or is not greater in the Milky Way than in

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<v Speaker 1>other parts of the sky. Careful calculations have at length

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<v Speaker 1>been made. It appears that the whole of the Milky Way,

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<v Speaker 1>that zone of soft light passing round the Earth covers.

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<v Speaker 1>If we leave out the coal sat and other such

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<v Speaker 1>gaps between one tenth and one eleventh of the whole heavens,

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<v Speaker 1>the entire number of naked eye stars or stars of

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<v Speaker 1>the first six magnitudes does not exceed six thousand, and

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<v Speaker 1>of these, eleven hundred and fifteen lie scattered along the

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<v Speaker 1>bed of the Milky Way stream. If the brighter stars

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<v Speaker 1>were scattered all over the sky as thickly as throughout

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<v Speaker 1>the Milky Way, their number would amount to twelve thousand

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<v Speaker 1>instead of only six thousand. This shows us that the

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<v Speaker 1>higher magnitude stars really are collected along the Milky Way

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<v Speaker 1>in greater numbers than elsewhere in the dark spaces of

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<v Speaker 1>the Milky Way. On the contrary, bright stars are so

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<v Speaker 1>few that, if they were scattered in the same manner

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<v Speaker 1>over all the sky, their present number of six thousand

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<v Speaker 1>would come down to twelve hundred and forty, which would

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<v Speaker 1>be a serious loss. No rest, no quiet, no repose

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<v Speaker 1>in that great universe, which to our dim eyesight looks

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<v Speaker 1>so fixed and still, but one perpetual rush of moving

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<v Speaker 1>suns and worlds. For every star has its own particular motion,

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<v Speaker 1>every sun is pressing forward in its own appointed path.

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<v Speaker 1>And among the myriads of stars, bright blazing spheres of

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<v Speaker 1>white or golden, red, blue, or green radiance, sweeping with

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<v Speaker 1>steady rush through space, our Sun also hastens onward. When

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<v Speaker 1>I speak of the Sun's movement, it must of course

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<v Speaker 1>be understood that the Earth and planets all travel with him,

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<v Speaker 1>much as a great steamer on the sea might drag

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<v Speaker 1>in his wake a number of little boats. From one

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<v Speaker 1>of the little boats, you could judge of the steamer's

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<v Speaker 1>motion quite as well as if you were on the

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<v Speaker 1>steamer itself. Astronomers judge partly of the Sun's motion by

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<v Speaker 1>watching the seeming backward drift of stars to the right

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<v Speaker 1>and left of him, and the watching can be as

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<v Speaker 1>well accomplished from Earth as from the Sun himself. After all,

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<v Speaker 1>this mode of judging is and must be very uncertain.

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<v Speaker 1>Among the millions of stars visible, we know the distances

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<v Speaker 1>roughly of less than one hundred, and every star has

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<v Speaker 1>its own real motion, which has to be separated from

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<v Speaker 1>the apparent change of position caused by the Sun's advance.

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<v Speaker 1>It seems now probable that the Sun's course is directed

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<v Speaker 1>more or less towards the neighborhood of the constellation Hercules.

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<v Speaker 1>But if orbits of suns, like orbits of planets, are eclipses,

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<v Speaker 1>he will curve away sideways long before he reaches Hercules.

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<v Speaker 1>Another investigation gives a neighborhood of sixty one Signae as

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<v Speaker 1>our next station. It is difficult to give any clear

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<v Speaker 1>idea of the immensity of the universe, even of that

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<v Speaker 1>portion of the universe which lies within reach of our

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<v Speaker 1>most powerful telescopes. How far beyond such limits it may reach,

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<v Speaker 1>we lose ourselves in imagining. Earlier in the book, we

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<v Speaker 1>have supposed possible models of the Solar system, bringing down

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<v Speaker 1>Sun and worlds to a small size, Yet keeping due proportions.

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<v Speaker 1>What if we were to attempt to make a reduced

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<v Speaker 1>model of the universe, that is, of just so much

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<v Speaker 1>of it as comes within our ken. Suppose a man

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<v Speaker 1>were to set himself to form such a model, including

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<v Speaker 1>every star which has ever been seen. Let him have

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<v Speaker 1>one tiny ball for the Sun, in another tiny ball

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<v Speaker 1>for Alpha Centauri, and let him, as a beginning, set

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<v Speaker 1>the two one yard apart. That single yard represents ninety

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<v Speaker 1>one millions of miles two hundred and thirty thousand times repeated.

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<v Speaker 1>Then let him arrange countless multitudes of other tiny balls

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<v Speaker 1>at due distances, some five times, ten times, twenty times

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<v Speaker 1>fifty times as far away from the Sun as Alpha Centauri.

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<v Speaker 1>It is said that the known universe made upon a

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<v Speaker 1>model of these proportions would be many miles in length

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<v Speaker 1>and breadth, but the model would appear fixed as marble.

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<v Speaker 1>The sizes and distances of the stars being so enormously reduced,

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<v Speaker 1>their rates of motion would be lessened in proportion. Long

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<v Speaker 1>intervals of time would need to pass before the faintest

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<v Speaker 1>motion of one of the millions of tiny balls could

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<v Speaker 1>become visible to the human eye. End of Section twenty

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<v Speaker 1>six