Speaker 1: Hello and Welcome to Western Sieve episode three hundred and
Speaker 1: twenty two. The Spanish Juggernaut. Habsburg, Spain and Austria were
Speaker 1: distinct kingdoms with disparate royal houses. Certainly they shared a
Speaker 1: common ancestry, Charles the Fifth, but their goals and ambitions
Speaker 1: were never the same. Still, Spain is going to be
Speaker 1: a major player in the Thirty Years War. In fact,
Speaker 1: it might be the major player, or at the very
Speaker 1: least the most important player outside of Central Europe. The
Speaker 1: period between fifteen sixteen and sixteen fifty nine is seen
Speaker 1: as Spain's golden age. Thanks to its overseas empire, Spain
Speaker 1: could bankroll enormous ambitions on the continent, though as we
Speaker 1: saw in the Netherlands, those ambitions were not always wise.
Speaker 1: But Spain's involvement was critical because he kept the specter
Speaker 1: of a World War afloat so long as it remained
Speaker 1: intimately involved. But in one important respect, the difficulties between
Speaker 1: the Habsburgs of Austria and the Habsburgs of Spain were
Speaker 1: quite similar. Like their Austrian cousins, the Spanish Habsburgs ruled
Speaker 1: a large empire that proved difficult to sustain and manage.
Speaker 1: The Empire had recently grown bigger, with the Union of
Speaker 1: the Crowns forced on the Portuguese by Philip the Second
Speaker 1: in fifteen eighty The young Don Sebastiano had died and
Speaker 1: most of the Portuguese nobility had died with him in
Speaker 1: the disasters Battle of al Caasari el Kabir in Morocco
Speaker 1: in fifteen seventy eight, effectively extinguishing Portuguese ruling house that
Speaker 1: had ruled it since the teen eighty five. It was
Speaker 1: a shotgun marriage forced by an invading Spanish army, but
Speaker 1: one which many Portuguese came to appreciate for the access
Speaker 1: it gave to Spanish wealth and trading opportunities. Portugal itself
Speaker 1: only brought another one point one new million subjects to
Speaker 1: the Union, but it had claims in Brazil, Africa and Asia.
Speaker 1: These positions, though, were thinly held, with perhaps no more
Speaker 1: than thirty thousand Europeans and fifteen thousand slaves in Brazil
Speaker 1: by sixteen hundred, facing around two point four million indigenous
Speaker 1: inhabitants scattered across the vast but largely unexplored Amazon. A
Speaker 1: few thousand Portuguese manned forts in Angola and Mozambique, while
Speaker 1: around ten thousand more were posted across India or the
Speaker 1: possessions east of the Cape that were governed from Genoa.
Speaker 1: Spain itself had around eight point seventy five million inhabitants
Speaker 1: in Castile and the associated lands of Catalonia, Aragon, Valencia
Speaker 1: and of course the Basque provinces. Contrary to the trend
Speaker 1: everywhere else in Europe, Castilian population growth had stopped around
Speaker 1: fifteen eighty, the onset of poor harvests, plague, emigration to
Speaker 1: the colonies, and above all the burden of war and
Speaker 1: taxation all taking their toll. By sixteen thirty one there
Speaker 1: were only four million Castilians, and around one million fewer
Speaker 1: than forty years earlier. Spain's overseas colonies were likewise affected
Speaker 1: by population decline, but in this case it was the
Speaker 1: direct consequence of the conquest itself, which brought disease and
Speaker 1: overwork for the indigenous population, reducing it from a number
Speaker 1: of thirty four million to around one point five by
Speaker 1: sixteen twenty. At that point there were around one hundred
Speaker 1: and seventy five thousand colonists and a roughly similar number
Speaker 1: of African slaves and peoples of mixed descent scattered across Mexico,
Speaker 1: the Caribbean, the western and northern coasts of South America,
Speaker 1: and around Manila in the Philippines. The statistics helped put
Speaker 1: Spain's colonial empire into perspective when compared to its European
Speaker 1: dominions that at one point five million subjects in the
Speaker 1: southern Netherlands, over a million apiece in Milan, in Sicily
Speaker 1: at about three million more in Naples. The importance of
Speaker 1: Spain's overseas dominions and colonies were only magnified by the
Speaker 1: poor state of its own economy. Apart from the re
Speaker 1: export of American silver, Spain's main contributions to European trade
Speaker 1: were raw materials and some food stuffs. Growth was inhibited
Speaker 1: by the country's system of cartels with monopolies over particular products,
Speaker 1: a practice that extended to colonial trade, with the crown's
Speaker 1: collaboration with Seville making it the only port accessible to
Speaker 1: the Americas. Harvest failure and onerous fiscal burden resulted in
Speaker 1: people leaving the land as they migrated to towns or colonies,
Speaker 1: weakening the survivor's resistance to aristocratic and clerical encroachments on
Speaker 1: their remaining common lands. Private investors and merchants relied on
Speaker 1: silver receipts to fund consumption, since the country failed to
Speaker 1: feed its own population and had to import much of
Speaker 1: its food. The inability to produce useful goods and sufficient
Speaker 1: quantities prevented Spaniards from benefiting from growth and colonial trade
Speaker 1: that expanded in line with the rising white population in
Speaker 1: the Americas. Dutch and other foreign merchants crowded into the market,
Speaker 1: obtaining special concessions to use Spain's Atlantic ports around the
Speaker 1: year sixteen hundred. By sixteen fifty, as a result, there
Speaker 1: were over one hundred and twenty thousand foreigners in Spain,
Speaker 1: notably in Seville, where they formed a tenth of the
Speaker 1: city's population. Though the colonial economy did finally start to
Speaker 1: diversify later on, silver was Spain's predominant interest. The New
Speaker 1: World produced fifty thousand tons of silver between fifteen forty
Speaker 1: and seventeen hundred, literally doubling the existing stock in Europe.
Speaker 1: Exports only really got underway after the discovery of rich
Speaker 1: seams at Potassi in Bolivia in fifteen forty five and
Speaker 1: Zaktacas in Mexico in fifteen forty eight, and of course
Speaker 1: the introduction of German mining techniques which I talked about
Speaker 1: a little bit previously in fifteen fifty five, that used
Speaker 1: mercury to separate silver from waste. This system relied on
Speaker 1: disastrous forced labor. Laborer has died at the rate of
Speaker 1: forty a day working six day shifts at an altitude
Speaker 1: in Potassi of six thousand meters high. Increasingly, Indian villages
Speaker 1: bought exemptions by paying tribute to higher laborers, who constituted
Speaker 1: over half the workforce by sixteen hundred, but the system
Speaker 1: was still controlled by a corrupt local elite that was
Speaker 1: not above murdering a government inspecter with a cup of
Speaker 1: poison high chocolates. The silver was carried on the back
Speaker 1: of thousands of lamas and mules down the mountains all
Speaker 1: the way to the Pacific coast, where the mercury and
Speaker 1: food were collected for the return journey. Meanwhile, the presser's
Speaker 1: cargo was then shipped north to Panama and carried across
Speaker 1: the Isthmus for transport and shipment to Seville. Attempts by
Speaker 1: the local viceroy to improve the atrocious conditions in the
Speaker 1: mercury mines contributed to a fluctuing production in Potosi in
Speaker 1: fifteen ninety one and then a steady decline after fifteen
Speaker 1: oh five, from a peak of seven point seven million
Speaker 1: pesos in fifteen ninety two to two point ninety five
Speaker 1: million by sixteen fifty, but the shortfall was made good
Speaker 1: by Zakateacas were output increased from sixteen to fifteen thanks
Speaker 1: to much more plentiful labor, but Mexican production depended on
Speaker 1: Spanish mercury, leaving it vulnerable if the sea lanes were interrupted.
Speaker 1: The lifeline rested on a con voice system, which had
Speaker 1: been established in fifteen sixty four. Two fleets sailed back
Speaker 1: and forth across the Atlantic most years. The galleons left
Speaker 1: Seville in August, headed southwest toward the African coast, then
Speaker 1: passed the Canaries to pick up the trade winds that
Speaker 1: took them due west to the Leeward Islands. From there
Speaker 1: they could steer southwest to Cartagenia in modern day Columbia,
Speaker 1: or in Panama to Porto Baillo, a journey of more
Speaker 1: than almost six thousand miles taking around eight weeks. The
Speaker 1: normal escort was a squadron of eight warships crewed by
Speaker 1: two thousand sailors and marines, though the large merton En
Speaker 1: vessels were also armed. Having collected the silver along with
Speaker 1: any other colonial products, the fleet would then winter in
Speaker 1: Havana before heading back to Seville. The other fleet, called
Speaker 1: the Flota, set out from Cadiz in April or May
Speaker 1: with two warships. It followed the same route as the
Speaker 1: Leeward Islands before turning northwest to Hispaniola, Cuba, and then
Speaker 1: Vera Cruz in Mexico. To deliver the mercury and collect
Speaker 1: the Zacateca silver. Both fleets had to return via Colombia
Speaker 1: through the Bahama Channel that possessed the most dangerous section
Speaker 1: of the entire voyage due to hurricane and reefs. The
Speaker 1: galleons sailed twenty nine times during the first half of
Speaker 1: the seventeenth century, but only two silver convoys were lost
Speaker 1: to enemy action, one in sixteen twenty eight and another
Speaker 1: in sixteen fifty six. Spanish trade with the Americas was
Speaker 1: worth about ten million ducats a year by sixteen hundred,
Speaker 1: roughly twice that of the Portuguese trade with the East Indies.
Speaker 1: The Portuguese also used a convoy system to protect their
Speaker 1: share of valuable spice trade across the Indian Ocean background Africa.
Speaker 1: In addition, they had developed presence at axim Elima on
Speaker 1: the Gold Coast, which is modern day Ghana, to secure
Speaker 1: gold and slave trades, establishing further forts around the mouth
Speaker 1: of the Congo River. By fifteen thirty five, the Portuguese
Speaker 1: were well and truly involved in the African slave trade.
Speaker 1: By then, already seven hundred thousand enslaved human beings were
Speaker 1: being shipped from Africa to Brazil. Slaves cost around eight
Speaker 1: hundred pesos about eight months wages for an indigenous worker.
Speaker 1: As the local population died from a variety of causes,
Speaker 1: the number of slaves imported increased until the fifteen seventies,
Speaker 1: when the number rose dramatically in an effort to essentially
Speaker 1: replace the evaporating native population. Expansion into the Congo and
Speaker 1: Angola allowed Portugal access to more enslaved humans, and by
Speaker 1: the sixteen twenties they were sending over four thousand of
Speaker 1: them per year across the Atlantic. Then, enslaved African labor
Speaker 1: had effectively replaced native Indian workers on the vast sugar
Speaker 1: plantations of Brazil. By the time the slave trade was
Speaker 1: finally suspended in the eighteen fifties, over three point sixty
Speaker 1: five million humans had been forcibly shipped to Brazil. Slaves
Speaker 1: were but one cog in the system that was the
Speaker 1: international sugar business. By sixteen hundred, business was well and
Speaker 1: truly booming. By sixteen twenty eight, a fleet of three
Speaker 1: hundred ships was in constant motion transporting sugar from Brazil
Speaker 1: to Portugal. And that was just one part of the
Speaker 1: sugar trade. Spanish, French, and English colonies were also pumping
Speaker 1: out the white gold that a fever pitch. Annual exports
Speaker 1: tripled by sixteen to fifty when forty thousand tons of
Speaker 1: sugar made its way across the ocean. In Brazil, sugar
Speaker 1: accounted for nine tenths of all Brazilian export earnings. Impressive,
Speaker 1: though these colonial developments were space in its European dominions
Speaker 1: remained the real physical basis of the empire. Despite a
Speaker 1: stagnating economy and inefficient administration, Spain managed to send two
Speaker 1: hundred and eighteen million ducats to sustain the war in
Speaker 1: Flanders between fifteen sixty six and fifteen sixty four, whereas
Speaker 1: American silver receipts only totaled one hundred and twenty one
Speaker 1: million across the same period. Direct and indirect taxes agreed
Speaker 1: with the Castilian Cortes or Parliament produced six point two
Speaker 1: million ducats a year around sixteen hundred. The most important
Speaker 1: of these that was the Millonis tax, introduced in fifteen ninety,
Speaker 1: that raised ninety million ducats between sixteen twenty one and
Speaker 1: sixteen thirty nine, or three times the amount arriving from
Speaker 1: the Americas across the same period. By contrast, Catalonia, Valencia,
Speaker 1: and Aragon paid virtually nothing, since their local assemblies refused
Speaker 1: to grant regular taxes to the crown. The Church did
Speaker 1: pay three levies known as the Three Graces, worth about
Speaker 1: one point six million ducats annually. The Spanish Netherlands provided
Speaker 1: three point six million milan around two and Naples twice that,
Speaker 1: but most of these sums were consumed by local defense.
Speaker 1: By contrast, silver imports provided only two million ducats each
Speaker 1: year to the crown at the turn of the century,
Speaker 1: since the monarch only received the surplus from the colonial treasuries,
Speaker 1: as well as a percentage of the much larger private
Speaker 1: shipments that landed in Seville. America's silver's real value was
Speaker 1: a source of credit. Landers retained faith in the Crown's
Speaker 1: ability to pay its spiraling debts. With these future imports,
Speaker 1: Creditors were given concaniations or claims on specific revenues or
Speaker 1: jurors where local government bonds paid fixed interest. The later
Speaker 1: developed into a form of funded debt as they became
Speaker 1: traded on the international market through Genoese bankers, who handled
Speaker 1: most of Spain's external credit until sixteen seventy. Spain's addiction
Speaker 1: to debt was a huge problem. Only a small portion
Speaker 1: of annual income could be used on everyday expenses. The
Speaker 1: vast majority of the silver imported from the New World
Speaker 1: and the proceeds from Spain's other domains all went to
Speaker 1: service the monarchy's massive debts, and as we know, Spain
Speaker 1: was not consistent in servicing that debt. In fifteen fifty nine,
Speaker 1: Philip the Second was forced to declare bankruptcy when debt
Speaker 1: debt total exceeded twenty five million ducats. Sounds like a lot, well,
Speaker 1: it was, but it was a far cry from the
Speaker 1: eighty five million ducats that caused another bankruptcy upon Philip's
Speaker 1: death in fifteen ninety eight. Eighty five million ducats was
Speaker 1: ten times the royal revenue of Spain at that time.
Speaker 1: Don't laugh too hearted, old Philip, though, the United States
Speaker 1: brought in four point four trillion in time, taxes and
Speaker 1: other income in twenty twenty three, but our debt stands
Speaker 1: at thirty five trillion. It's not ten times, but it's
Speaker 1: nearly eight. To meet its obligations, the Spanish monarchy started
Speaker 1: doing what everybody else was doing in the seventeenth century.
Speaker 1: Sold everything that wasn't nailed down. Titles were sold like
Speaker 1: they were going out of style. One hundred and sixty
Speaker 1: nine new lordships were created and sold between sixteen twenty
Speaker 1: five and sixteen sixty eight. That doubled the size of
Speaker 1: the Spanish aristocracy. Unfortunately, since nobles were tax exempts, all
Speaker 1: this did was eliminate another source of ongoing revenue. By
Speaker 1: sixteen fifty over ten percent of the population of Castile
Speaker 1: did not pay taxes. You can probably see this is
Speaker 1: why Spain's Golden Age is going to end in sixteen
Speaker 1: fifty nine. All this economic activity was directed towards continuing
Speaker 1: Spanish imperialism. Military expenditure rose from seven million ducats in
Speaker 1: fifteen seventy four to nine million by the early fifteen nineties.
Speaker 1: Between fifteen ninety six and sixteen hundred appeared only four years.
Speaker 1: Spain sent three million ducats a year just to sustain
Speaker 1: the army in the Netherlands, while the Dutch War consumed
Speaker 1: a total of forty million ducats. Between Philip the Second's
Speaker 1: death and the sixteen to nine Truce, Spanish forces numbered
Speaker 1: around one hundred thousand men worldwide in sixteen hundred, with
Speaker 1: sixty thousand in the Army of Flanders, representing the largest
Speaker 1: operational army in Europe. Spain also became Europe's leading naval
Speaker 1: power during those last two decades of the sixteenth century.
Speaker 1: They played a major part in the victory of Leponto
Speaker 1: over the Ottomans and the Mediterranean in fifteen seventy one,
Speaker 1: allowing it to scale down its galley fleet to around
Speaker 1: twenty vessels, supported by smaller squadrons operating from Sicily, Naples
Speaker 1: and Genoa. Other efforts to increase in Imperial armada in
Speaker 1: the Atlantic were less successful, as underlined by the failed
Speaker 1: attempted invasion of England in fifteen eighty eight. The new
Speaker 1: Millones tax funded fifty six thousand tons of new construction,
Speaker 1: most of it along the northern coast between fifteen eighty
Speaker 1: eight and sixteen oh nine, creating a fleet of sixty
Speaker 1: large warships. By sixteen hundred, this was divided into roughly
Speaker 1: three equal squadrons, with that at Lisbon patrolling the Atlantic
Speaker 1: to provide additional security for the two critical silver convoys.
Speaker 1: A squadron patrolled the Straits securing access to the Mediterranean,
Speaker 1: and a third was based along the northern coast for
Speaker 1: operations against France and the Protestant Powers. A small Pacific
Speaker 1: squadron of six ships was formed in fifteen eighty to
Speaker 1: protect the silver shipments between Arica and Panama, but attempts
Speaker 1: to form an additional Caribbean squadron were frustrated by the
Speaker 1: continual detachment of its ships to assist the Atlantic convoys.
Speaker 1: Naval expansion pushed personnel requirements up to twenty seven thousand
Speaker 1: by fifteen ninety, at a time when the army also
Speaker 1: needed more recruits, and at a time when the Castilian
Speaker 1: population had effectively stopped growing. As the supply of volunteers dwindled,
Speaker 1: it became harder to rely on the established system of
Speaker 1: issuing commissions to officers to recruit units. The state steadily
Speaker 1: diversified its approach, retaining direct management of the army and
Speaker 1: navy but contracting out key aspects of recruitment, logistics, and
Speaker 1: weapons phill Up. The second co opted local nobles and
Speaker 1: magistrates to recruit men, and tried to revive the defunct
Speaker 1: militia to provide a measure of security in the hinterlands
Speaker 1: of some of the outlying provinces. Meanwhile, the state monopoly
Speaker 1: over weapons production, created in fifteen sixty two, was progressively
Speaker 1: dismantled after fifteen ninety eight, placing effectively all works in
Speaker 1: private hands by sixteen thirty two. Privatization did not necessarily
Speaker 1: mean state weakness. For example, private shipyards could build a
Speaker 1: warship for thirty one ducits a ton in the sixteen thirties,
Speaker 1: four ducats a ton less than the state run yards,
Speaker 1: saving an average of about two thousand ducats per ship. However,
Speaker 1: such measures were clearly unplanned and unwanted, forced upon the
Speaker 1: monarchy by its inability to just manage the burgeoning debt.
Speaker 1: Only five point one million ducts of Spain's revenue in
Speaker 1: fifteen ninety eight was directly available for the crown to
Speaker 1: spend because the other four point one million was already
Speaker 1: mortgaged to creditors or needed to pay interest. Revenue anticipation increased,
Speaker 1: reducing the quote unquote free proportion to only one point
Speaker 1: six million by sixteen eighteen. Meanwhile, annual expenditure had climbed
Speaker 1: to a colossal twelve million ducats, set against a total
Speaker 1: revenue that fell from twelve point nine million and filled
Speaker 1: the Second's death to ten million by less maybe by
Speaker 1: sixteen twenty one. Philip the Third broke the long tradition
Speaker 1: of Spanish property by issuing a debased coin the year
Speaker 1: after his ascension in fifteen ninety eight. Though he agreed
Speaker 1: to stop issuing these copper coins in sixteen oh eight
Speaker 1: in return for increased taxes, he resorted to it again
Speaker 1: both in sixteen seventeen and sixteen twenty one, driving good
Speaker 1: coin from circulation and only driving inflation higher. The crown
Speaker 1: lost in the long run on this gamble because Spaniards
Speaker 1: paid their taxes in these copper coins, but the soldiers
Speaker 1: would only accept silver. By the fifteen nineties, even many
Speaker 1: within Spain believed that the kingdom was in decline. Many
Speaker 1: argued that states go through natural cycles of rise and decline,
Speaker 1: citing examples like Greece and the Roman Empire. In Spain,
Speaker 1: they called this sevato the alfundo. The ship is going down.
Speaker 1: Where people could not agree though, is what a man
Speaker 1: might do about it. Certainly God could reverse the state's
Speaker 1: downward trajectory, but man, it was widely believed, could maybe
Speaker 1: slow it. Most thinkers at the time focused on the
Speaker 1: crown and the monarchy's credibility, ignoring larger trends of de
Speaker 1: industrialization and agricultural malaise. But while the ship might be
Speaker 1: going down, it had not capsized. Many remained optimistic about
Speaker 1: Spain's position going into the Thirty Years War, which probably
Speaker 1: explains why Spain will get involved so early. There was
Speaker 1: reason for optimism, by the way. Compared to France, Spain's
Speaker 1: chief European rival, Spain looked unified and relatively strong, and
Speaker 1: Spain had built up so much momentum, though the Spanish
Speaker 1: juggernauts would ultimately run out of fuel. Not surprisingly, imperial
Speaker 1: defense assumed first place in Spanish stratgy. The very extent
Speaker 1: of the empire had increased the potential enemies, while the
Speaker 1: spread of heresy raised the specter of internal unrest that
Speaker 1: manifested itself most clearly in the Dutch revolt after fifteen
Speaker 1: sixty six. Defense of the trade monopoly with the Indies
Speaker 1: also expanded with the acquisition of Portugal, whose colonies were
Speaker 1: lucrative but now also required protection. However, what gave Spain
Speaker 1: its mission of defense was a defense of Catholicism that
Speaker 1: became essentially fused with national identity. The completion of the
Speaker 1: Reconquista in fourteen ninety two saw the defeat of the
Speaker 1: last Moorish kingdom in Iberia and earned the monarch the
Speaker 1: title of his Most Catholic Majesty from the papacy overseas.
Speaker 1: Conquest added a new missionary role, as Spaniards saw themselves
Speaker 1: as civilizing this new world. Defense of the Mediterranean against
Speaker 1: the Ottomans maintained the ideal of crusade that broadened with
Speaker 1: the fight against heresy throughout Europe. The Catholic mission extended
Speaker 1: to the incorporation of Rome itself into Spain's i'd say,
Speaker 1: informal empire or I guess sphere of influence, extending beyond
Speaker 1: its formal possessions. This began, of course, with the ascension
Speaker 1: of the boorge of Pope Alexander the sixth and fourteen
Speaker 1: ninety two, who divided the New World between Spain and
Speaker 1: Portugal by the Treaty of Tortosius, the line being slanted
Speaker 1: decidedly in Spain's favor. It evolved into a symbiotic relationship,
Speaker 1: whereby the monarchy and the papacy each drew benefit from
Speaker 1: each other, but Spain remained the dominant partner. In an
Speaker 1: age where monarchs were renouncing Rome, Spain remained respectful. Papal
Speaker 1: feudal jurisdiction over Naples was formally acknowledged by the payment
Speaker 1: of an annual tribute of seven thousand ducats, but as
Speaker 1: I mentioned, this was symbiotic. While money flowed from Spain
Speaker 1: to Rome, even more went directly into Spanish treasury thanks
Speaker 1: to papal sanction. The three Graces and other ecclesiastical levies
Speaker 1: were worth a combined three point six million ducats a
Speaker 1: year to the Spanish monarchy by sixteen twenty one, accounting
Speaker 1: for a third of total ordinary revenue. The close ties
Speaker 1: to the Universal Church reinforced Spain's imperial mission. Though Charles
Speaker 1: the Fifth's imperial title passed his brother, not his son, Philip.
Speaker 1: His legacy enhanced Spain's own sense of empire, and Spanish
Speaker 1: warships and troops continued to carry flags with the Imperial
Speaker 1: black double eagle well into the seventeenth century. So while
Speaker 1: there were issues, it's unclear as to whether or not
Speaker 1: the Spanish really understood them. And crucially, if the Spanish
Speaker 1: didn't understand the kingdom's long term economic problems, neither did
Speaker 1: the French or the English. Other Europeans believed that Spain's
Speaker 1: vast American colonies would give it unlimited resources to fight indefinitely.
Speaker 1: They might have been right had only the Spanish correctly
Speaker 1: used those resources, but Spain was more realistic. Spain had
Speaker 1: no desire to intervene anywhere and everywhere. We saw how
Speaker 1: Philip the second went back and forth for a significant
Speaker 1: period of time before attempting twice to intervene in England's affairs.
Speaker 1: Philip had spent several years in Germany in the late
Speaker 1: fifteen forties. He knew Many German princes sure Catholicism gave
Speaker 1: the Spanish Habsburgs some kind of unifying impetus, but they
Speaker 1: were more than willing to work with the Lutheran princes
Speaker 1: Spanish influence declined when the Imperial court moved from Prague
Speaker 1: to Vienna in sixteen twelve, though to be fair, in
Speaker 1: part the decline of Spanish influence was due to Philip
Speaker 1: the Second's faith in the emperor to protect the Catholic faith. Similarly,
Speaker 1: Austrian influence was declining in Spain, and the situation grew
Speaker 1: only more poignant under Philip the Third. Unlike his father,
Speaker 1: Philip the Third had no personal experience of the empire,
Speaker 1: and it is assumed even less significance in his political calculations.
Speaker 1: The new monarch had been described as quote the laziest
Speaker 1: ruler Spain has had end quote, echoing Philip the Second's
Speaker 1: own assessment that quote, God, who has given me so
Speaker 1: many kingdoms, has denied me a son capable of ruling
Speaker 1: them end quote. After an initial brief interest, he is
Speaker 1: widely supposed to have left government in the hands of
Speaker 1: his favorite, the Count and later Duke of Lerma, and
Speaker 1: retired to a private world of self gratification. As a result,
Speaker 1: according to one historian, quote nobody ruled in Madrid. A
Speaker 1: world empire was run on automatic pilot. Quote. Such criticism
Speaker 1: is a little unjust as It creates this false division
Speaker 1: between a supposedly dynamic Spain under Philip the Second and
Speaker 1: a declined Spain under his son. Philip the Third, attended
Speaker 1: Council of State daily from the age fifteen and was
Speaker 1: already signing documents for his increasingly frail father by fifteen
Speaker 1: ninety seven. He inherited his father's exalted sense of majesty
Speaker 1: and retained the final decision on all important matters. The
Speaker 1: real difference lay in the more realistic attempt to put
Speaker 1: this form of absolutism into practice. The king concentrated on
Speaker 1: his symbolic representation of power through intensifying his father's already remote, inaccessible,
Speaker 1: lofty majesty by physically removing the monarch from government. Practical
Speaker 1: business was devolved to the Duke of Lerma, who now
Speaker 1: dealt directly with the ministers of government. While I do
Speaker 1: not want to rehash the Dutch revolt, which lasted until
Speaker 1: sixteen oh nine, it's important to be cognizant of it
Speaker 1: as we turn to the outbreak of war in sixteen
Speaker 1: eighteen in Prague. The revolt of the Netherlands became Spaceyane's
Speaker 1: most pressing problem during the later sixteenth century and continued
Speaker 1: to shape its policy in the first half of the
Speaker 1: seventeenth It dictated how Madrid reacted the problems elsewhere, since
Speaker 1: these couldn't be tackled fully, at least until the Dutch
Speaker 1: had been dealt with. While it did not cause the
Speaker 1: Thirty Years War, the revolt heightened the international tension and
Speaker 1: militants everywhere, and everyone was quick to draw parallels between
Speaker 1: it and their own struggles in Central Europe. It's important
Speaker 1: to understand the political, stretrategic, religious and economic situation in
Speaker 1: the Netherlands in order to comprehend how Spain is going
Speaker 1: to respond to Austria's difficulties. After sixteen eighteen, attempts to
Speaker 1: impose stricter controls over the Low Countries from Spain created
Speaker 1: opposition amongst Protestant nobility, particularly the House of Orange. Orange
Speaker 1: also owned the principality of that name in southern France
Speaker 1: and was related to the Counts of Nassau in the Rhineland.
Speaker 1: Resentment deepened with Spanish demands to continue with high levels
Speaker 1: of taxation despite the conclusion of peace with France in
Speaker 1: fifteen fifty nine. Philip the Second's insistence on a more
Speaker 1: active persecution of heresy added religious motives to the mix,
Speaker 1: and popular riding widened into an ill coordinated revolt after
Speaker 1: the year fifteen sixty six. Philip only poured gasoline onto
Speaker 1: the flames in April of fifteen sixty seven by sending
Speaker 1: the vicious Duke of Alba and ten thousand troops north
Speaker 1: along what would become known as the Spanish Road. Alba,
Speaker 1: as we know, would occupy Antwerp and other major towns,
Speaker 1: building new fortresses to attempt to control the inhabitants, and
Speaker 1: instituting an incredibly repressive tribunal to root out both heresy
Speaker 1: and treason. Though the numbers executed fall a far short
Speaker 1: of the one hundred thousand claimed in Protestant propaganda, the
Speaker 1: situation was significantly appalling, for sixty thousand refugees to flee
Speaker 1: northwest to Germany and England by fifteen seventy two. The
Speaker 1: revolt continued back and forth until fifteen seventy seven, when
Speaker 1: the two sides signed a truce which allowed the seven
Speaker 1: northern provinces to unify under the so called Union of
Speaker 1: Utrecht treaty. In fifteen seventy nine, this, though neither side
Speaker 1: realized it at the time effectively partitioned the Netherlands. The
Speaker 1: Spanish held the five southern provinces and the rebels the
Speaker 1: northern seven. Neither side could seem to gain any advantage
Speaker 1: over the other's territory. The victory over the Turks at
Speaker 1: Leponto did allow the Spanish to devote more resources to
Speaker 1: the Dutch revolt, under the command of the Duke of Parma,
Speaker 1: who developed a method of warfare and a strategy that
Speaker 1: became known later as the Flanders School. That's worth paying
Speaker 1: a little bit of attention to this because these fighting
Speaker 1: styles are going to be critical in understanding the Thirty
Speaker 1: Years War. The Flanders School took a careful, methodical approach
Speaker 1: to warfare. Parma opened each campaign by sending his cavalry
Speaker 1: in all directions to confuse the enemy, while shifting his
Speaker 1: main body of troops from town to town, reducing Dutch strongholds,
Speaker 1: especially those along the more numerous waterways that were vital
Speaker 1: to move troops and supplies. The Dutch had strengthened their
Speaker 1: urban defenses with concentric rings of fortification in the manner
Speaker 1: of the Italians, intended to keep the enemy at a
Speaker 1: distance and prevent him from bombarding their homes. Their expertise
Speaker 1: as dike builders enabled them to flood the surrounding countryside
Speaker 1: as well as the usual system of ditches around their positions,
Speaker 1: while further outworks extended the garrison's field of fire. Such
Speaker 1: fortresses required huge numbers of men to attack them. Besiegers
Speaker 1: were forced to date trenches parallel to the enemy's works
Speaker 1: to protect themselves from the defender's fire. Once they had
Speaker 1: entrenched their own artillery to provide covering fire, would then
Speaker 1: begin the difficult and laborious process of digging towards the
Speaker 1: selected point of attack, stretching out a second and possibly
Speaker 1: third parallel as they approached the enemy works. Each time
Speaker 1: they would bring their guns forward until at last these
Speaker 1: were entrenched in a point blank range to batter a
Speaker 1: hole in the enemy wall. An energetic garrison commander would
Speaker 1: organize sorties, especially at night, to harass the besiegers, destroy
Speaker 1: their trenches, and spike their guns. To this extent, nothing
Speaker 1: had changed since medieval or even classical warfare, and moreover,
Speaker 1: the besiegers themselves often had to dig an entire outer
Speaker 1: circle of entrenchments to protect attack from a relief army.
Speaker 1: Given this dangerous and lengthy process. It became customary to
Speaker 1: summon the garrison to surrender at various points. Sometimes the
Speaker 1: defenders would agree to capitulate if not relieved within a
Speaker 1: certain time. Garrisons that surrendered at an early stage were
Speaker 1: more likely to be granted the honors of war, entitling
Speaker 1: them to march out with their families, possessions and symbols
Speaker 1: like flags, and maybe even one or two canon Those
Speaker 1: that surrendered later often had to do so as prisoners
Speaker 1: of war, though only the officers would actually be interred,
Speaker 1: since no government could afford the cost of keeping ordinarily
Speaker 1: soldiers incarcerated. Rank and file who were captured were generally
Speaker 1: impressed into their captors' service, accepting this as the only
Speaker 1: way to ensure their survival. Now, the last opportunity to
Speaker 1: surrender came once the inner Wall had been breached. If
Speaker 1: they refused to surrender now, they would face an assault
Speaker 1: and their town would be given over for plunder and
Speaker 1: sometimes massacre. Spain's determination to crack the Dutch defenses led
Speaker 1: it to create Europe's largest army. Once Parma persuaded the
Speaker 1: five remaining loyal provinces to readmit Spanish troops after fifteen
Speaker 1: eighty two. Already by October of that year, the army
Speaker 1: of Flanders totaled over sixty one thousand men, while the
Speaker 1: monarchy maintained a further fifteen thousand in Italy and over
Speaker 1: twenty thousand in Spain and its other possessions. There were
Speaker 1: only around two thousand cavalry in Flanders, while a quarter
Speaker 1: of the troops elsewhere were mounted. The Spanish system overall
Speaker 1: was tactically extremely flexible, since troops were accustomed to working
Speaker 1: in small groups throughout sieges and during campaigns. Now. Of course,
Speaker 1: Spain had an international empire, so only a small portion
Speaker 1: of its armies were actually Spanish. While the officer corps
Speaker 1: were still dominated by the nobility, at the turn of
Speaker 1: the seventeenth century, it was becoming more and more professional.
Speaker 1: That process would accelerate during the Thirty Years War. Parma's
Speaker 1: war machine was effective in the Netherlands. By fifteen seventy nine,
Speaker 1: the Spanish had recovered and began recovering towns and cities
Speaker 1: they had previously lost. This then encouraged England to become involved,
Speaker 1: though their aid was more theoretical. In fifteen eighty eight,
Speaker 1: the Dutch formed a confederacy and called the States General,
Speaker 1: which decisively shifted both the war and the Dutch government
Speaker 1: in general toward a republican form of government. Truly, it
Speaker 1: was the Netherlands economic growth that sustained the state during
Speaker 1: this protracted struggle for independence. The northern province's population doubled
Speaker 1: between fifteen twenty and sixteen fifty, already reaching one point
Speaker 1: five million by sixteen hundred, with numbers boosted by the
Speaker 1: influx of a further one hundred and fifty thousand refugees
Speaker 1: fleeing south between fifteen seventy two and sixteen twenty one.
Speaker 1: With seven hundred and sixty thousand inhabitants by sixteen fifty,
Speaker 1: Holland's population far outnumbered that of the next largest province, Friesland,
Speaker 1: with around one hundred and sixty thousand. Holland was also
Speaker 1: the most heavily urbanized province, with one hundred and seventy
Speaker 1: five thousand people living in Amsterdam and another three hundred
Speaker 1: and sixty five thousand and twenty two other cities. The
Speaker 1: concentration of people, wealth and talent fueled economic growth, securing
Speaker 1: Dutch primacy in world trade by fifteen ninety. This rested
Speaker 1: primarily on shipping, both in terms of construction and transport
Speaker 1: for European and world goods. The colonial trade caught the
Speaker 1: contemporary imagination, but the Baltic and Northern Sea remained the
Speaker 1: most important seas for activity. The Dutch fishing fleet totaled
Speaker 1: two thousand, two hundred and fifty boats in sixteen thirty four,
Speaker 1: while seven hundred and fifty ships were employed in the
Speaker 1: Baltic and Mediterranean trade compared to only three hundred in
Speaker 1: colonial traffic. Ships in the European trade could make up
Speaker 1: to four trips per year, but a voyage to the
Speaker 1: Indies took two years. Much of the colonial trade was
Speaker 1: linked to European industry, such as the eight hundred boats
Speaker 1: that visited the care be in between fifteen ninety nine
Speaker 1: and sixteen oh five to collect salt to preserve Northern
Speaker 1: Sea fishing catch. Nonetheless, the spice trade was extremely valuable,
Speaker 1: with the two thy, seven hundred and ten tons landing
Speaker 1: annually at the turn of the century worth one hundred
Speaker 1: and thirty seven tons of silver compared to the one
Speaker 1: hundred and twenty five thousand tons of grain shipped from
Speaker 1: the Baltic but that was worth only eighty eight tons
Speaker 1: of silver. Interestingly, despite all the economic growth in Holland,
Speaker 1: the Dutch still paid more to sustain the war effort
Speaker 1: than they had ever paid in taxes to the Spanish.
Speaker 1: To me, what this really illustrates is the pure failure
Speaker 1: of Spanish diplomacy and diplomatic strategy. Had Spain been able
Speaker 1: to come up with any reasonable settlement, there certainly would
Speaker 1: have been thousands of Dutch who might have taken the deal,
Speaker 1: but Philip Parma and Spain remained intransigent and suffered the consequences.
Speaker 1: It's worth wondering if the outcome of the Thirty Years
Speaker 1: War might have been different had the Spanish not spend
Speaker 1: decades shooting themselves in the foot. The other thing you
Speaker 1: need to know about the Netherlands leading up to the
Speaker 1: Thirty Years War is that the Dutch were leaders in
Speaker 1: European arm sales and manufactures. The Dutch were so good
Speaker 1: at producing the top tiered weapons needed by European early
Speaker 1: modern armies that they never had to give discounts. That
Speaker 1: being said, the Dutch government would routinely release suburplus weapons
Speaker 1: to its allies at a reduced cost those manufacturing the
Speaker 1: weapons however, didn't care who they sold them to. Case
Speaker 1: in point, the moment the hostilities ended with Spain in
Speaker 1: sixteen forty eight, the Dutch were selling weapons to their
Speaker 1: former enemies. The trade in weaponry accounted for around five
Speaker 1: percent of the total Dutch economy in the mid seventeenth century,
Speaker 1: which was a massive amount for a world that was
Speaker 1: still overwhelmingly agrarian. Like the Spanish, the Dutch also reformed
Speaker 1: their tactics and strategies during the Long Dutch Revolt, and
Speaker 1: these reforms were influential during the Thirty Years War. Most
Speaker 1: of these reforms are associated with Maurice of Nassau. His
Speaker 1: reforms were intended to address problems common to all European
Speaker 1: armies and were highly influential in Germany and Sweden. Nasau
Speaker 1: developed a four part approach to military discipline. The first
Speaker 1: was drill, which really had not been a major part
Speaker 1: of European warfare since the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
Speaker 1: The second was order units were to move in concert
Speaker 1: with one another. The third was internalized drill. The idea
Speaker 1: was to move from warrior mercenaries to disciplined soldiers who
Speaker 1: did what they were told. The final element was stressing
Speaker 1: rewards and punishments. Overall, the goal was to create a
Speaker 1: citizen army reminiscent of the old Roman legions. The Dutch
Speaker 1: also had their own techniques for logistics, including recruitment. These
Speaker 1: reforms are also part of a changing relationship between rulers
Speaker 1: and subjects. The German princes and other territorial rulers could
Speaker 1: already summon their subjects to perform landfloge or assistance against
Speaker 1: invasion and natural disaster, as well as gertvlage against lawbreakers.
Speaker 1: The development of the Imperial Peace strengthened these powers by
Speaker 1: fifteen seventy, since rulers could now call upon subjects to
Speaker 1: uphold imperial law and defend the empire. Although territorial estates
Speaker 1: disputed whether these powers extended to conscripting subjects to fight
Speaker 1: offensive wars and generally refused to vote taxes for these,
Speaker 1: princes saw new militias as a way of extending their
Speaker 1: authority over their subjects and believed that regular drill would
Speaker 1: spearhead social change in line with the disciplinary and moral drives.
Speaker 1: Like these measures, implementation of the territorial defense system relied
Speaker 1: upon the same network of parish priest, village headmen and
Speaker 1: princely bailiffs. However, princes encountered resistance from their territorial nobility,
Speaker 1: who refused to allow their own tenants to be incorporated
Speaker 1: into local militias and armies. The result was a compromise,
Speaker 1: since the reforms dependent on the estate's agreement to pay
Speaker 1: the drill sergeants buying new weapons, then provide beer and
Speaker 1: other inducements to encourage men to turn up for training.
Speaker 1: Militia enrollment was eventually restricted to electoral towns in Brandenburg,
Speaker 1: while in Saxony nine six hundred and sixty four men
Speaker 1: were selected from the electors ninety three thousand able body tenants.
Speaker 1: Nobles were unable to dodge the system entirely, since their
Speaker 1: fiefs were long associated with the obligation to perform military service.
Speaker 1: Local affairs were charged with registering the male population, dividing
Speaker 1: it into groups according to age, marital status, and fitness,
Speaker 1: and then selecting unmarried young men for regular instruction by
Speaker 1: professional drill sergeants. Men were grouped into companies of a
Speaker 1: standard size, with communities providing complete units and smaller parishes
Speaker 1: combining into a field one. Militias were never intended to
Speaker 1: replace standing armies. Their purpose was to provide immediate local
Speaker 1: defense against incursions while serving as the primary garrison forces
Speaker 1: for strategic fortresses. The biggest innovation wrought by the Dutch
Speaker 1: was to make war a business venture. The Spanish still
Speaker 1: believed medieval loyalty and oaths of bond would bind their
Speaker 1: men to their commander even after the money ran out.
Speaker 1: The Dutch had no such pretensions of grandeur. They knew
Speaker 1: professional soldiers needed to be paid regularly. That was the
Speaker 1: biggest change the Dutch brought to war. They combined it
Speaker 1: with economics. By sixteen hundred, the Dutch revolt was truly
Speaker 1: draining Spain of resources. It had lost about fifteen hundred
Speaker 1: men per year since fifteen eighty two and seemed to
Speaker 1: be losing ground everywhere. Spain. Despite what should have been
Speaker 1: the obvious naval superiority they had, were unable to resupply
Speaker 1: their forces in the Netherlands due to effective Dutch defensive measures.
Speaker 1: The Spanish could not get past the various small island
Speaker 1: chains with their larger galleons, making it difficult for the
Speaker 1: Duke of Alba to keep his armies in the field. Hence,
Speaker 1: Alba had to find an overland route, which was called
Speaker 1: the Spanish Road. It wasn't really a road, more of
Speaker 1: a marked path that moved troops from Spain's Mediterranean coast
Speaker 1: to the English Channel and ultimately Low countries. The march
Speaker 1: from Milan to Flanders through Spanish territory was about one
Speaker 1: thousand kilometers long, but because the Spanish had to avoid France,
Speaker 1: they had no other choice and it was the safer option. Hence,
Speaker 1: between fifteen sixty seven and sixteen twenty, over one hundred
Speaker 1: and twenty three thousand men traveled the Spanish Road to Flanders,
Speaker 1: compared to just seventeen thousand, six hundred men who got
Speaker 1: to the same place by sea. This fact illustrates the
Speaker 1: difficulty of logistics in the early modern world, which will
Speaker 1: be crucial in the Thirty Years War. Europe was in
Speaker 1: the early seventeenth century still very much a patchwork continent
Speaker 1: of various kingdoms and principalities. Moving through different territories might
Speaker 1: be possible, but only with skilled negotiation and planning. In
Speaker 1: sixteen oh nine, the Spanish and Dutch agreed to a truce.
Speaker 1: It wouldn't hold, but for the moment at least, it
Speaker 1: seemed like Spain had managed to extricate itself from war
Speaker 1: with three European powers, the Netherlands, England and France. Recall
Speaker 1: Spain support the Catholic faction before Henry the Fourth ultimately
Speaker 1: won the French crown, establishing the Borban dynasty. Hence, after
Speaker 1: sixteen oh nine, it looked like Spain was in a
Speaker 1: good condition, though it could hardly afford to embroil itself
Speaker 1: in a new conflict before paying down at least some
Speaker 1: of its existing war debt. Nothing at the time suggested
Speaker 1: that the coming conflict in Central Europe was imminent, but
Speaker 1: as we'll see next week, conflict was just around the
Speaker 1: corner now here. I want to pause for a brief
Speaker 1: moment and talk about some changes that are coming up
Speaker 1: with the show. Essentially, I'm realizing that the writing might
Speaker 1: be on the wall. I am going to be taken out,
Speaker 1: but not by a human competitor. AI is coming for me.
Speaker 1: Artificial intelligence is already producing podcasts, and it's going to
Speaker 1: be able to produce podcasts much faster than I can.
Speaker 1: This has taken me about ten years to get to
Speaker 1: this point. I'm sure I could do it in about
Speaker 1: fifteen minutes. So as a consequence, we're going to cut
Speaker 1: some of the depth. We're going to go back to
Speaker 1: briefer episodes that cover more terrain in a faster period
Speaker 1: of time, because I'd like to get to the end
Speaker 1: of the show before my end. Now we'll see how
Speaker 1: this goes, but ultimately there'll be more shows produced more quickly,
Speaker 1: and hopefully that'll be a good thing. It's also due
Speaker 1: to the changing structure of advertisement. In order to get
Speaker 1: my hosting for free, I have to keep the ads,
Speaker 1: and those ads and numbers seem to just continuously go up,
Speaker 1: and so shorter episodes will just mean less of those,
Speaker 1: which I think is for the best. Now, if you'd
Speaker 1: like more detailed episodes, those are always available. You can
Speaker 1: check out Western SI podcast two point oh the links
Speaker 1: in the show notes there. If you don't like the
Speaker 1: ads at all either, you can get the ad free
Speaker 1: version of this show for dollars a month. So there
Speaker 1: are options out there. But look forward to a couple
Speaker 1: of coming episodes in the next few weeks that look
Speaker 1: to be shorter, but hopefully will come out with greater frequency.
Speaker 1: As always, this has been one of the most interesting
Speaker 1: and love desires of my life, and I have enjoyed
Speaker 1: producing these programs. I very very very very much want
Speaker 1: to get to the modern age and finish before the
Speaker 1: robots finish me off. We'll see if I can do it.