WEBVTT 1 00:00:00.920 --> 00:00:05.000 Section twenty one of the Science History of the Universe, 2 00:00:05.440 --> 00:00:10.640 Volume four. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings 3 00:00:10.640 --> 00:00:14.519 are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, 4 00:00:15.039 --> 00:00:21.600 please visit LibriVox dot org. Recording by Warren Cotty Gurnee, Illinois, 5 00:00:23.000 --> 00:00:27.920 The Science History of the Universe, Volume four, edited by 6 00:00:28.039 --> 00:00:38.320 Francis Rolt Wheeler. Chemistry, Chapter sixteen The development of applied chemistry. 7 00:00:39.119 --> 00:00:43.039 Analytical chemistry, that division of chemistry which treats of the 8 00:00:43.079 --> 00:00:46.920 methods of ascertaining the chemical composition of substances and mixtures, 9 00:00:47.399 --> 00:00:54.439 both as to kind, qualitative analysis and quantity. Quantitative analysis 10 00:00:55.079 --> 00:00:58.719 has been an indispensable aid to all branches of chemistry, 11 00:00:59.280 --> 00:01:04.000 pure and applied during their modern development, and has itself 12 00:01:04.120 --> 00:01:10.959 undergone considerable elaboration and perfection. In particular, analytical methods, both 13 00:01:11.040 --> 00:01:16.840 qualitative and quantitative have been and are being continuously improved. 14 00:01:17.280 --> 00:01:22.599 The services of Boyle, Hoffmann, Margroff, Shiel and Bergmann in 15 00:01:22.760 --> 00:01:26.760 qualitative analysis have been mentioned, and it will be remembered 16 00:01:27.040 --> 00:01:29.760 that Bergmann was the first to publish a system of 17 00:01:29.879 --> 00:01:33.840 qualitative analysis in the wet way. He laid a firm 18 00:01:33.920 --> 00:01:38.000 foundation for the methodical employment of reagents, and the methods 19 00:01:38.040 --> 00:01:42.079 of qualitative analysis now in use have been developed from 20 00:01:42.079 --> 00:01:48.439 his analytical course of procedure. Wilhelm august Lapidaeius and Johann 21 00:01:48.439 --> 00:01:53.120 Gottling contributed materially to the systematic arrangement of the analytical 22 00:01:53.159 --> 00:01:57.640 methods in use during the first decade. The former published 23 00:01:57.640 --> 00:02:01.439 in eighteen oh one his han Buch des chemishan analyssi 24 00:02:02.040 --> 00:02:07.599 der minel corpur and the latter his practiche on leitong 25 00:02:07.760 --> 00:02:13.400 surprofundant on serlegenden Kem in eighteen o two. Other works 26 00:02:13.439 --> 00:02:19.520 followed these, and analytical methods became known and improved. Qualitative 27 00:02:19.560 --> 00:02:23.039 analysis in the dryway has been perfected by the use 28 00:02:23.080 --> 00:02:26.759 of the blowpipe, an instrument which was originally employed for 29 00:02:26.800 --> 00:02:30.960 soldering metals and which was first employed for testing minerals 30 00:02:31.319 --> 00:02:36.800 by Kronstett and Engstrom. Bergmann and Gonn studied thoroughly the 31 00:02:36.919 --> 00:02:40.759 deportment of various substances and reagents under the flame of 32 00:02:40.800 --> 00:02:44.719 the blowpipe, and their treatise on this important branch of 33 00:02:44.800 --> 00:02:50.840 chemical analysis was published in seventeen seventy nine. Bersilius, Hausmann 34 00:02:50.919 --> 00:02:55.520 and Wallaston later became interested in this field, and Bersilius 35 00:02:55.759 --> 00:02:59.800 who was notably instrumental in introducing the blowpipe into chemistry, 36 00:03:00.319 --> 00:03:03.479 published a treatise on the application of this instrument in 37 00:03:03.520 --> 00:03:09.039 eighteen twenty. More recently, the art of dry assay docimacy 38 00:03:09.840 --> 00:03:13.680 was considerably advanced by the important flame reactions of Bunsen. 39 00:03:14.439 --> 00:03:19.879 His treatise Flahmen Reaction in was published in eighteen eighty. 40 00:03:20.520 --> 00:03:26.360 After the preparatory investigations of Bergmann, Kloprath, van Queline and Preust, 41 00:03:26.879 --> 00:03:30.879 it was Bresilius who worked out new methods of quantitative analysis, 42 00:03:31.439 --> 00:03:35.879 thereby promoting the systematic development of this branch. He had 43 00:03:35.919 --> 00:03:40.560 shown great ingenuity and inspired his pupils, more especially Heinrich 44 00:03:40.680 --> 00:03:45.960 Rose and Friedrich Foeller with like powers. Rose and Vohler 45 00:03:46.080 --> 00:03:50.800 extended the observations of Persilius and made analytical methods generally 46 00:03:50.879 --> 00:03:54.560 known by the publication of their treatises. The han buchder 47 00:03:54.680 --> 00:03:59.400 analytician Kemi of the former first appeared in eighteen twenty 48 00:03:59.479 --> 00:04:04.080 nine and passed through six German editions and three French editions, 49 00:04:04.759 --> 00:04:09.840 while the Practica Umbungen in der chemission Analyzy of Voler, 50 00:04:10.319 --> 00:04:14.120 which was published in eighteen fifty three, was translated into 51 00:04:14.199 --> 00:04:18.759 Russian French and English. The chief exponent and great master 52 00:04:18.879 --> 00:04:24.800 of analytical chemistry, however, was c Remigius Frescinius eighteen eighteen 53 00:04:24.920 --> 00:04:28.519 to eighteen ninety seven, who for over half a century 54 00:04:28.560 --> 00:04:32.759 devoted his life and labors to its extension. He collated 55 00:04:32.839 --> 00:04:36.800 and examined all methods formerly in use and devised many 56 00:04:36.839 --> 00:04:40.480 new ones. But his greatest services were the establishment of 57 00:04:40.600 --> 00:04:46.759 the Seitschrift furre Analyticia KEM in eighteen sixty two and 58 00:04:46.839 --> 00:04:52.120 the publication of his unlittung sor Qualitative in chemission Analysy 59 00:04:52.839 --> 00:04:57.720 in eighteen forty one and his unlittung Sore Quantitative in 60 00:04:58.240 --> 00:05:03.439 chemission Analyz in eighteen forty six. These works have been 61 00:05:03.439 --> 00:05:08.800 published in numerous editions and translations since. Other chemists who 62 00:05:08.800 --> 00:05:12.160 have aided in the discovery of new tests, improved methods 63 00:05:12.160 --> 00:05:15.959 of separation and determination, and in the designing of suitable 64 00:05:16.040 --> 00:05:29.680 chemical apparatus for analytical operations are liebig Stromeyer, Vunsen, Fremi, Turner, Shearer, Rommelsberg, Gibbs, Blomstrand, Maragnock, 65 00:05:30.000 --> 00:05:35.319 and Winkler Classen. Services in electroanalysis have been referred to 66 00:05:37.560 --> 00:05:41.759 volumetric analysis, that process in which the reagents are employed 67 00:05:41.759 --> 00:05:45.439 in solutions of known strength has been greatly developed during 68 00:05:45.480 --> 00:05:49.560 the last seventy years, and volumetric methods are much used 69 00:05:49.639 --> 00:05:53.480 in technical analysis owing to the fact that no weighing 70 00:05:53.600 --> 00:05:56.600 is necessary after the standard solutions are once made up, 71 00:05:57.120 --> 00:06:02.240 thus saving considerable time. The quantitative analysis of gases was 72 00:06:02.279 --> 00:06:06.240 greatly perfected by Bunsen, whose researches in this direction began 73 00:06:06.319 --> 00:06:10.680 in eighteen thirty eight. Bunsen published methods of estimating various 74 00:06:10.720 --> 00:06:14.759 gases by absorption in combustion, which have required only slight 75 00:06:14.839 --> 00:06:19.240 modification since. But the qualitative analysis of gases has only 76 00:06:19.319 --> 00:06:22.879 lately been developed in a scientific manner. The work of 77 00:06:22.920 --> 00:06:26.560 Winkler in this connection has been important, and he and 78 00:06:26.639 --> 00:06:31.279 Hempel have improved the apparatus for gasometry and gas analysis 79 00:06:31.720 --> 00:06:38.040 and have generalized methods. The quantitative analysis of organic compounds 80 00:06:38.079 --> 00:06:42.319 has gradually developed from the observation that carbonic acid and 81 00:06:42.399 --> 00:06:47.040 water are products of their combustion. Le Vossier indicated the 82 00:06:47.120 --> 00:06:50.839 right path here, and his process was improved upon by Gay, 83 00:06:50.920 --> 00:06:56.639 Lussac and Thurnard, Ercilius Libig, and more recently by Densted, 84 00:06:57.000 --> 00:07:01.480 Collie and Hempel. The exact detail termination of nitrogen only 85 00:07:01.519 --> 00:07:06.600 became possible after eighteen thirty, when Dumas had devised his method. 86 00:07:07.360 --> 00:07:10.600 Other methods of determining nitrogen have been worked out by 87 00:07:10.680 --> 00:07:15.480 will and Varentrop and by Keldahl, whose method is extensively 88 00:07:15.560 --> 00:07:20.839 used in agricultural chemical analysis for estimating protein. Many methods 89 00:07:20.839 --> 00:07:25.079 for determining the halogens, sulfur, phosphorus, and other elements which 90 00:07:25.120 --> 00:07:28.879 occur less frequently in organic bodies have been worked out, 91 00:07:29.360 --> 00:07:33.839 and these have found extended application in forensic chemistry, hygiene, 92 00:07:33.959 --> 00:07:40.439 and agricultural chemistry. The beginnings of phytochemistry the chemistry of 93 00:07:40.480 --> 00:07:44.000 plant life can be traced back to investigations made at 94 00:07:44.040 --> 00:07:51.000 the close of the eighteenth century. Priestly Senbiere de Saussuur 95 00:07:51.160 --> 00:07:54.480 and others were familiar with the fact that green plants 96 00:07:54.600 --> 00:07:58.439 under the influence of sunlight will remove carbonic acid gas 97 00:07:58.480 --> 00:08:02.000 from the atmosphere and decol impose it. They were also 98 00:08:02.079 --> 00:08:04.879 aware of the fact that ammonia salts are of value 99 00:08:04.920 --> 00:08:09.519 in stimulating the growth of plants, Nicholas LeBlanc having pointed 100 00:08:09.560 --> 00:08:13.759 this out at the end of the eighteenth century. Although 101 00:08:13.800 --> 00:08:16.319 the problems of plant life, the mode and manner of 102 00:08:16.360 --> 00:08:19.839 plant nourishment and growth had engaged the labors of many 103 00:08:19.920 --> 00:08:23.600 trained observers for many years, Yet even during the first 104 00:08:23.800 --> 00:08:27.560 three decades of this century, the belief was almost universal 105 00:08:28.040 --> 00:08:33.559 that plants, like animals, derived their nourishment directly from organic matter. 106 00:08:35.519 --> 00:08:38.639 This assumption found its chief advocates in Germany and France, 107 00:08:39.120 --> 00:08:44.799 in Alberchtheer and Matthew di Dombolsey, respectively, in their opinion 108 00:08:44.919 --> 00:08:48.879 inorganic salts, the importance of which could not be absolutely denied, 109 00:08:49.519 --> 00:08:52.679 acted merely as stimulants and not as if they were 110 00:08:52.759 --> 00:08:56.039 essential to the growth of the plant. Indeed, they are 111 00:08:56.080 --> 00:08:58.840 held that the creation of earths in plants through their 112 00:08:58.919 --> 00:09:03.000 vital forces was possible. In this assumption, he followed the 113 00:09:03.000 --> 00:09:06.200 opinion of Schrader, who so early as the year eighteen 114 00:09:06.320 --> 00:09:10.759 hundred imagined that he had proved by actual experiments the 115 00:09:10.879 --> 00:09:17.919 generation of the ash constituents of plants by the vital forces. J. G. Wallerius, 116 00:09:18.159 --> 00:09:21.360 a Stockholm chemist, had sought to lay a much more 117 00:09:21.440 --> 00:09:26.559 rational foundation for agricultural chemistry in seventeen sixty one in 118 00:09:26.679 --> 00:09:32.000 his Akerbukats chemiska Kundor, when he made a comparison between 119 00:09:32.039 --> 00:09:35.360 the plant constituents and the constituents of the soil in 120 00:09:35.399 --> 00:09:40.320 which they grew. It was Justice von Liebeg who demonstrated 121 00:09:40.360 --> 00:09:43.960 the falsity of the views of Thyer and Dabasil, and 122 00:09:44.039 --> 00:09:48.320 who entirely disproved the humous doctrine, as the theory held 123 00:09:48.360 --> 00:09:51.679 at that time was called. It was in eighteen forty, 124 00:09:52.159 --> 00:09:55.840 after exhaustive investigations on the weathering of rocks, on the 125 00:09:55.879 --> 00:09:59.039 formation of soils, and on the effects of rain in 126 00:09:59.080 --> 00:10:03.200 the gases which Ran holds in solution, that Libig published 127 00:10:03.200 --> 00:10:06.639 his classic work on the Application of Chemistry to Agriculture 128 00:10:06.720 --> 00:10:12.240 and Physiology. In this Libig completely undermined the foundations of 129 00:10:12.279 --> 00:10:17.200 the humous theory and enunciated the following foundation principles of 130 00:10:17.360 --> 00:10:24.000 modern agricultural chemistry. On inorganic substances form the nutritive material 131 00:10:24.120 --> 00:10:29.240 for all plants. Two. Plants live upon carbonic acid, ammonia, 132 00:10:29.720 --> 00:10:38.120 nitric acid, water, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, solicic acid, lime, magnesia, potash, 133 00:10:38.200 --> 00:10:44.559 and iron. Many need common salt. Three manure. The dung 134 00:10:44.759 --> 00:10:48.879 of animals acts not through the organic elements directly upon 135 00:10:49.000 --> 00:10:52.679 plant life, but indirectly through the products of the decay 136 00:10:52.799 --> 00:10:58.320 and fermentative processes. Thus carbon becomes carbonic acid and nitrogen 137 00:10:58.360 --> 00:11:03.840 becomes ammonia or Nitricastin the organic manures, which consist of 138 00:11:03.919 --> 00:11:07.720 parts of remains of plants and animals, can be substituted 139 00:11:07.759 --> 00:11:10.919 by the inorganic constituents into which they would be resolved 140 00:11:10.960 --> 00:11:16.480 in the soil. Practical field trials carried out by governments 141 00:11:16.519 --> 00:11:21.000 and large landowners proved the correctness of Liebik's deductions from 142 00:11:21.000 --> 00:11:25.159 his laboratory experiments, and the many investigators in this line 143 00:11:25.240 --> 00:11:29.559 since have come either directly or indirectly from Liebig's school. 144 00:11:29.840 --> 00:11:33.840 Libig's conclusion that one must restore to the soil that 145 00:11:33.879 --> 00:11:37.240 which the removal of the crop had withdrawn if one 146 00:11:37.240 --> 00:11:41.720 would prevent its exhaustion is the basis of successful agricultural 147 00:11:41.759 --> 00:11:48.720 practice today. A French chemist J. B. Bossingal worked independently 148 00:11:48.840 --> 00:11:52.159 along similar lines to Libig, and the services which he 149 00:11:52.240 --> 00:11:55.639 rendered in carrying out researches on the nutrition of plants 150 00:11:55.679 --> 00:12:00.759 by new methods were of great importance. May be made 151 00:12:00.840 --> 00:12:04.759 here about nitrification in soils and the assimilation of free 152 00:12:04.840 --> 00:12:09.639 nitrogen by plants. The most important discoveries in agricultural chemistry 153 00:12:09.639 --> 00:12:15.000 of recent years in eighteen forty nine, Georgesville, then director 154 00:12:15.080 --> 00:12:19.639 of the agricultural experiment station at Vincennes, proved by actual 155 00:12:19.679 --> 00:12:25.000 experiment that certain plants assimilate free atmospheric nitrogen, but his 156 00:12:25.080 --> 00:12:29.200 conclusions were strongly disputed, being directly opposed to those of 157 00:12:29.240 --> 00:12:34.399 Bosingel and Liubigue, and also to subsequent investigations by laws, 158 00:12:35.080 --> 00:12:40.039 Gilbert and Pew in eighteen fifty seven. An important experiment 159 00:12:40.120 --> 00:12:42.799 bearing on the point and extending over many years, was 160 00:12:42.840 --> 00:12:46.840 begun in eighteen fifty five by her Schultz of Lupetz 161 00:12:47.200 --> 00:12:52.240 in Altmark, Germany. He grew lupines on very poor soil 162 00:12:52.360 --> 00:12:56.799 with the addition of non nitrogenous manures only, and found 163 00:12:56.879 --> 00:13:01.080 that notwithstanding this, the soil became rich in nitrogen year 164 00:13:01.080 --> 00:13:04.159 by year. The next step toward the solution of the 165 00:13:04.240 --> 00:13:08.240 question was the discovery in eighteen seventy seven of the 166 00:13:08.320 --> 00:13:12.960 now well known process of nitrification in soils by schlosing 167 00:13:13.039 --> 00:13:17.720 in munts, this nitrification being the work of definite microbes, 168 00:13:18.159 --> 00:13:21.240 some of which have been isolated. While more recent work 169 00:13:21.320 --> 00:13:25.559 has proved that the direct assimulation of atmospheric nitrogen by 170 00:13:25.639 --> 00:13:29.279 laguminous plants is brought about by the agency of certain 171 00:13:29.360 --> 00:13:36.200 microorganisms tuberculal bacteria originally present in the soil. Cultures of 172 00:13:36.240 --> 00:13:40.240 these specific bacteria are now prepared on a manufacturing scale 173 00:13:40.720 --> 00:13:46.080 under the name of nitrogens, for application to soils naturally 174 00:13:46.120 --> 00:13:49.840 deficient in them. It only remains to mention as a 175 00:13:49.879 --> 00:13:53.200 factor in the present and future growth of agricultural chemistry. 176 00:13:53.799 --> 00:13:57.519 The experiment stations and laboratories established now by the governments 177 00:13:57.519 --> 00:14:01.720 of every civilized country. In the United States, for example, 178 00:14:01.919 --> 00:14:06.759 there are at present sixty one agricultural experiment stations, all 179 00:14:06.840 --> 00:14:10.840 in charge of efficient specialists, and many intricate problems of 180 00:14:10.919 --> 00:14:15.759 national importance have been solved. The large chemical industries, and 181 00:14:15.919 --> 00:14:19.559 in fact all branches of chemical technology, have been immensely 182 00:14:19.600 --> 00:14:23.600 developed during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and the achievements 183 00:14:23.639 --> 00:14:27.159 of chemistry in the arts and industries have been stupendous 184 00:14:27.279 --> 00:14:32.039 and varied. During the modern chemical period, pure chemistry and 185 00:14:32.080 --> 00:14:36.399 applied chemistry have been constantly interactive, and the latter has 186 00:14:36.519 --> 00:14:43.480 profited immensely by the extension of the former, while pure chemistry, theoretical, inorganic, organic, 187 00:14:43.519 --> 00:14:48.120 and practical chemistry has in turn been greatly benefited by 188 00:14:48.120 --> 00:14:52.759 the opportunities offered by the industries. The advancement of technical 189 00:14:52.840 --> 00:14:56.799 chemistry has been especially aided, however, by the development of 190 00:14:56.879 --> 00:15:00.799 analytical chemistry, which has allowed of a keen insight into 191 00:15:00.840 --> 00:15:04.840 the composition of the various industrial products, thereby leading to 192 00:15:04.919 --> 00:15:10.559 the introduction of many technological innovations. Then, too, industrial research 193 00:15:10.600 --> 00:15:14.919 has been and is being constantly fostered by chemical manufacturers, 194 00:15:15.600 --> 00:15:18.759 and this has led to the accruitment of important novelties 195 00:15:18.799 --> 00:15:23.480 and improvements. The literature of technical chemistry is very extensive, 196 00:15:24.000 --> 00:15:27.919 but the standard treatises of Rudolf von Wagner, Han Bucher 197 00:15:28.000 --> 00:15:35.399 Chemistry Technology, Karl Cosmarsh Yeshishtika their Technology site, Dermtta des 198 00:15:35.399 --> 00:15:41.279 oksanton yahundots T e Thorpe A Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, 199 00:15:41.960 --> 00:15:46.159 and Ernst von Meyer. A History of Chemistry, translated by 200 00:15:46.240 --> 00:15:50.600 McGowan contains accounts of the development of the important industries 201 00:15:51.960 --> 00:15:56.039 the manufacturers of sulfuric acid and soda, which may be 202 00:15:56.120 --> 00:15:59.279 looked upon as the basis of all the other chemical industries, 203 00:15:59.600 --> 00:16:02.919 and which which are naturally followed by those of hydrochloric acid, 204 00:16:03.240 --> 00:16:07.399 bleaching powder, chlorate of potash and other salts of potassium, 205 00:16:07.519 --> 00:16:12.039 nitric acid, etc. Only attained to their full vigor after 206 00:16:12.120 --> 00:16:16.360 the various processes involved had been explained by chemical investigation, 207 00:16:16.960 --> 00:16:20.679 and after the most favorable conditions for those processes had 208 00:16:20.720 --> 00:16:25.120 been worked out. Important practical improvements were made in the 209 00:16:25.120 --> 00:16:28.399 manufacture of sulfuric acid so early as the beginning of 210 00:16:28.440 --> 00:16:32.639 the nineteenth century e g. The amount of steam required 211 00:16:32.720 --> 00:16:36.679 was regulated and the process was made continuous, the latter 212 00:16:36.720 --> 00:16:41.399 by Hulker. The first attempt to explain this remarkable chemical 213 00:16:41.440 --> 00:16:46.519 process of the formation of sulfuric acid from sulfuricic acid, air, 214 00:16:46.639 --> 00:16:50.759 water and nitrous gas was made by Clement and Desormes, 215 00:16:51.559 --> 00:16:55.879 who recognized the important part played by the nitric oxide 216 00:16:56.000 --> 00:16:59.639 high essential for the manufacture. The careful observations on the 217 00:16:59.679 --> 00:17:03.879 chemical behavior of nitrous acid to sulfurus and sulfuric have 218 00:17:04.079 --> 00:17:07.559 been is sufficiently evidenced by the introduction of the gay 219 00:17:07.640 --> 00:17:11.559 lusac and glover towers to which they gave rise and 220 00:17:11.640 --> 00:17:16.599 which have made the process into one complete whole. In 221 00:17:16.640 --> 00:17:21.839 eighteen thirty one, Peregrine Phillips discovered the contact process by 222 00:17:21.880 --> 00:17:25.720 bringing about the combination of sulfur dioxide and oxygen in 223 00:17:25.799 --> 00:17:29.160 presence of platinum, but it was only forty to fifty 224 00:17:29.240 --> 00:17:33.119 years later that Clemens Winkler converted this experiment into a 225 00:17:33.119 --> 00:17:39.440 technical manufacture. The contact process, in many modifications has developed 226 00:17:39.440 --> 00:17:42.440 and improved so rapidly that many think it will eventually 227 00:17:42.480 --> 00:17:47.920 supplant the old chamber process. Altogether, common salt forms the 228 00:17:47.920 --> 00:17:51.559 foundation of the soda industry, whose history commences with the 229 00:17:51.559 --> 00:17:55.920 beginning of the modern chemical period. Nicholas LeBlanc was the 230 00:17:56.000 --> 00:17:59.759 first to succeed in converting salt into soda, with sodax 231 00:17:59.759 --> 00:18:04.720 sols as an intermediate product Maherbi and del Me theory, 232 00:18:05.359 --> 00:18:08.799 having some time previously attempted to utilize the latter substance 233 00:18:08.799 --> 00:18:12.920 in the same way, but without material success. It was 234 00:18:12.960 --> 00:18:17.200 in seventeen ninety one that LeBlanc commenced the actual manufacture 235 00:18:17.279 --> 00:18:21.240 of soda, and in the year eighteen twenty three Muspratt 236 00:18:21.519 --> 00:18:25.079 began the erection of his alkali works at Liverpool. His 237 00:18:25.240 --> 00:18:28.559 name deserves a foremost place in connection with the development 238 00:18:28.599 --> 00:18:32.079 of the soda industry. The formation of soda from the 239 00:18:32.119 --> 00:18:36.279 sulfate by fusing the latter with coal and limestone was 240 00:18:36.359 --> 00:18:40.480 ultimately so far explained by exact chemical experiments as to 241 00:18:40.559 --> 00:18:45.000 allow of a tenable theory of this fusion process being advanced. 242 00:18:45.240 --> 00:18:49.279 Scientific researches have also given rise to numerous importance improvements 243 00:18:49.279 --> 00:18:52.920 in the soda manufacturer e g. To the beautiful process 244 00:18:52.960 --> 00:18:56.839 of Hargraves and Robinson, by which sulfate of soda is 245 00:18:56.880 --> 00:19:00.960 prepared directly without the previous production of sulfurre furic acid, 246 00:19:01.119 --> 00:19:04.799 to the introduction of revolving soda furnaces, and to many 247 00:19:04.839 --> 00:19:09.599 processes for utilizing and rendering harmless the unpleasant alkali waste. 248 00:19:10.599 --> 00:19:13.759 But the greatest advance of all in this direction is 249 00:19:13.799 --> 00:19:18.039 the comparatively recent and exceedingly simple process of Chance, by 250 00:19:18.079 --> 00:19:20.920 which nearly all the sulfur and alkali waste can be 251 00:19:20.960 --> 00:19:26.240 recovered at a very cheap rate Purely. Chemical observations have 252 00:19:26.319 --> 00:19:29.759 also led to what was until quite recently the most 253 00:19:29.759 --> 00:19:33.480 important of all the innovations in the soda industry, the 254 00:19:33.519 --> 00:19:37.200 conversion of common salt into carbonate of soda without the 255 00:19:37.279 --> 00:19:41.640 intermediate formation of sulfate at all, by the ammonia soda process. 256 00:19:42.759 --> 00:19:47.000 The manufacture of ammonia soda and of artificial manures has 257 00:19:47.039 --> 00:19:50.440 grown so enormously of late years that the demand for 258 00:19:50.519 --> 00:19:55.240 salts of ammonia has increased proportionately, but this requirement has 259 00:19:55.319 --> 00:19:59.039 in its turn been met by introduction of improved apparatus 260 00:19:59.039 --> 00:20:01.759 for the working up of games liquor and by the 261 00:20:01.799 --> 00:20:05.160 successful attempts to extract the nitrogen of fuel in the 262 00:20:05.200 --> 00:20:08.559 form of ammonia at the same time that the heat 263 00:20:08.599 --> 00:20:12.359 from the fuel or the residual coke is itself being utilized. 264 00:20:14.200 --> 00:20:17.559 Berthelay's experiments upon the bleaching action of chlorine and the 265 00:20:17.640 --> 00:20:20.839 chlorides of the alkalies led to the manufacture of the 266 00:20:20.880 --> 00:20:25.519 bleached liquor known under the name of eu Dejevelle. Chloride 267 00:20:25.519 --> 00:20:28.799 of lime was first produced by Messer's Tenant and Company 268 00:20:29.200 --> 00:20:33.640 in Glasgow in the year seventeen seventy nine. Weldon's process 269 00:20:33.720 --> 00:20:37.240 for the recovery of the manganese dioxide required in the 270 00:20:37.279 --> 00:20:41.839 preparation of chlorine from the otherwise worthless chlorine waste has 271 00:20:41.920 --> 00:20:46.200 been in practical working since eighteen sixty seven. Deacon's method 272 00:20:46.240 --> 00:20:50.000 of producing chlorine directly from hydrochloric acid has never been 273 00:20:50.119 --> 00:20:54.880 very widely used. The manufacture of bromine and iodine is 274 00:20:54.920 --> 00:20:58.400 based upon the original work of Gay Lusac and Billard. 275 00:20:59.000 --> 00:21:02.119 Laboratory experiments have also led to the production of iodine 276 00:21:02.119 --> 00:21:05.759 from mother liquors which were formerly looked upon as valueless 277 00:21:06.279 --> 00:21:10.319 e g. Those from chili, saltpeter and from phosphorite after 278 00:21:10.400 --> 00:21:13.839 its treatment with acid to a franc is due the 279 00:21:13.880 --> 00:21:18.160 merit of having made bromine available for technical purposes by 280 00:21:18.200 --> 00:21:21.920 preparing it from the mother liquor of the stasphort wete salts. 281 00:21:22.960 --> 00:21:27.279 Nitric acid plays an important part in chemical industries, especially 282 00:21:27.359 --> 00:21:30.599 since the development of the manufacture of explosives on a 283 00:21:30.680 --> 00:21:35.000 large scale. Potassium nitrate, which has been known and valued 284 00:21:35.039 --> 00:21:39.200 for so long, is still an indispensable ingredient of black gunpowder. 285 00:21:40.079 --> 00:21:42.519 Since the introduction of the nitrate of soda from the 286 00:21:42.559 --> 00:21:46.960 chili deposits, nitric acid has been prepared from it instead 287 00:21:47.000 --> 00:21:50.160 of from the more expensive nitrate of potash by the 288 00:21:50.160 --> 00:21:54.680 old process of distillation with sulfuric acid, the latest advance 289 00:21:54.720 --> 00:21:58.400 here being the distillation of the nitric acid in a vacuum. 290 00:21:59.200 --> 00:22:03.480 The explosives whose preparation now forms a great industry, have 291 00:22:03.599 --> 00:22:07.359 all been made available for practical use by chemical investigations. 292 00:22:08.359 --> 00:22:12.200 The epoch making discovery of gun cotton by Schoenbein and 293 00:22:12.359 --> 00:22:17.920 Bocter independently in eighteen forty six must be recalled here. 294 00:22:18.799 --> 00:22:23.200 Nitroglycerine had been known as a chemical preparation discovered by 295 00:22:23.279 --> 00:22:27.400 Sobrero for fifteen years before it began to find extended 296 00:22:27.400 --> 00:22:32.039 application in eighteen sixty two as the result of Nobel's researches. 297 00:22:33.920 --> 00:22:37.599 The match industry owes its enormous development to the increased 298 00:22:37.680 --> 00:22:41.720 knowledge of chemical preparations and processes. There is a marked 299 00:22:41.759 --> 00:22:45.319 contrast between the chemical tender of eighteen o seven i e. 300 00:22:45.440 --> 00:22:48.759 Matches containing a mixture of chlorate of potash and sulfur, 301 00:22:49.359 --> 00:22:52.880 which were ignited by dipping them into sulfuric acid, and 302 00:22:52.960 --> 00:22:58.200 the present friction matches. Those prepared with ordinary phosphorus were 303 00:22:58.240 --> 00:23:02.160 most probably first introduced in eighteen thirty three by Arhini 304 00:23:02.359 --> 00:23:07.119 of pesh and subsequently by Romer of Vienna and Moldenhauer 305 00:23:07.200 --> 00:23:11.839 of Darmstadt. They have since undergone many improvements, the most 306 00:23:11.880 --> 00:23:15.599 important of these being subsequent to the discovery of amorphous 307 00:23:16.039 --> 00:23:19.920 not poisonous phosphorus, which had been used since the year 308 00:23:19.960 --> 00:23:24.279 eighteen forty eight. Phosphorus has been manufactured on the larger 309 00:23:24.319 --> 00:23:28.559 scale for about fifty years. Shiel's process for its preparation 310 00:23:28.720 --> 00:23:32.400 was improved upon by Nicholas so far back as seventeen 311 00:23:32.480 --> 00:23:36.240 seventy eight, and has been materially modified in recent years. 312 00:23:37.880 --> 00:23:42.000 Closely connected also with the soda industry are the manufactures 313 00:23:42.039 --> 00:23:46.759 of ultramarine and of glass. The former substance was discovered 314 00:23:46.759 --> 00:23:50.319 in eighteen twenty eight by Gamelin and at about the 315 00:23:50.359 --> 00:23:53.519 same time by Guamet. A little later, it was also 316 00:23:53.559 --> 00:23:58.200 discovered independently by Gotig of Mycin, who was the first 317 00:23:58.359 --> 00:24:02.079 to prepare it on a technical scale. The production of 318 00:24:02.119 --> 00:24:05.480 glass reached a high state of development in olden times 319 00:24:06.039 --> 00:24:10.839 through pure empiricism, but has greatly benefited by chemical research. 320 00:24:11.640 --> 00:24:14.920 The manufacture of glass with sulfate of soda and the 321 00:24:14.960 --> 00:24:19.240 improvements in flint and crystal glasses belonged to the last century, 322 00:24:19.839 --> 00:24:23.680 while progress has also been made in silfuring by Lebic 323 00:24:24.319 --> 00:24:27.880 and in glass painting through the discovery of new mineral colors. 324 00:24:29.599 --> 00:24:33.519 Water glass, which was known to Agricola and Glauber, was 325 00:24:33.599 --> 00:24:37.759 made available for technical purposes by Fuchs in eighteen eighteen 326 00:24:38.240 --> 00:24:40.759 and has since then been used for a great number 327 00:24:40.799 --> 00:24:45.559 of different purposes e g. For impregnating wood and preparing cements. 328 00:24:46.640 --> 00:24:50.920 The attempts to utilize raw vegetable products, particularly wood and 329 00:24:50.960 --> 00:24:54.279 straw for the production of paper, were first carried out 330 00:24:54.319 --> 00:24:58.119 in the year eighteen forty six. In caustic soda, a 331 00:24:58.200 --> 00:25:01.000 reagent was found by means of which cellulose could be 332 00:25:01.039 --> 00:25:05.119 prepared from these materials, while of late years a solution 333 00:25:05.279 --> 00:25:09.559 of calcium sulfite in sulfurous acid has shown itself especially 334 00:25:09.599 --> 00:25:13.960 well adapted for this purpose. The above process for the 335 00:25:14.000 --> 00:25:18.319 production of sulfite cellulose resulted from the chemical investigations of Tilbin, 336 00:25:19.599 --> 00:25:23.039 Cross and Bevins. Discovery that cellulose can be dissolved by 337 00:25:23.079 --> 00:25:27.319 carbon disulfide and soda and thus be converted into a 338 00:25:27.359 --> 00:25:31.680 soluble cellulose santhate has enormously extended the uses to which 339 00:25:31.720 --> 00:25:35.720 the plastic material can be put. Objects of all kinds, 340 00:25:36.200 --> 00:25:39.200 from artificial silk to billiard balls, can now be made 341 00:25:39.279 --> 00:25:44.559 of pure cellulose. The beet sugar industry has developed into 342 00:25:44.680 --> 00:25:48.440 an enormous manufacture from experiments carried out by chemists on 343 00:25:48.480 --> 00:25:54.039 a small scale. Margrov's discovery in seventeen forty seven that 344 00:25:54.119 --> 00:25:57.000 sugar was present in the juice of beet was not 345 00:25:57.119 --> 00:26:02.000 at that time capable of being applied commercially. Achard, a 346 00:26:02.039 --> 00:26:05.480 pupil of Margrov and others again took up at the 347 00:26:05.599 --> 00:26:08.839 end of the eighteenth century the problem of obtaining sugar 348 00:26:08.880 --> 00:26:11.799 from beet on the large scale, and they devised a 349 00:26:11.839 --> 00:26:14.720 process which was carried out in factories during the years 350 00:26:14.759 --> 00:26:20.000 of the Napoleonic Wars. However, this process was unable to exist, 351 00:26:20.480 --> 00:26:23.079 being a very imperfect one in giving but a small 352 00:26:23.160 --> 00:26:26.319 yield of sugar. And it is from the year eighteen 353 00:26:26.359 --> 00:26:29.640 twenty five that the real rise of the beach sugar 354 00:26:29.640 --> 00:26:34.079 industry dates. Various factors entering into its growth, not the 355 00:26:34.160 --> 00:26:37.480 least of which was the practical application of chemical knowledge. 356 00:26:38.279 --> 00:26:42.519 Scheibler's Strontia process for obtaining the crystallizable sugar from molasses 357 00:26:42.599 --> 00:26:45.680 is based upon a knowledge of the various saccurates of strontia. 358 00:26:46.640 --> 00:26:49.680 The filtration of the refined juice through bone charcoal was 359 00:26:49.720 --> 00:26:53.920 first recommended by Figure in eighteen eleven and then by 360 00:26:54.000 --> 00:26:58.240 de Rosne in eighteen twelve, and has since become an 361 00:26:58.319 --> 00:27:02.319 essential part of the process. The use of vacuum pans 362 00:27:02.319 --> 00:27:06.680 for evaporating the syrup was introduced by Howard in eighteen thirteen, 363 00:27:07.400 --> 00:27:11.799 since which time many improvements have been made in them Osmosis, 364 00:27:12.200 --> 00:27:15.240 which was first applied on the large scale by Dmranfault 365 00:27:15.440 --> 00:27:20.119 in eighteen sixty three for extracting the crystallizable sugar from molasses, 366 00:27:20.799 --> 00:27:26.000 was developed by researches in physical chemistry. The development of 367 00:27:26.039 --> 00:27:30.039 the fermentation industries has been immensely extended by chemical investigation, 368 00:27:30.880 --> 00:27:33.480 while at the same time the nature of the processes 369 00:27:33.519 --> 00:27:38.480 themselves has been explained. The latest work of E. Buchner 370 00:27:38.720 --> 00:27:42.480 and his pupils has resulted in showing that fermentation is 371 00:27:42.480 --> 00:27:48.599 brought about by an enzyme zymese, produced from yeast. Among 372 00:27:48.640 --> 00:27:51.920 the more important observations in this branch during recent years 373 00:27:52.279 --> 00:27:55.599 are those of affront upon the favorable effect of a 374 00:27:55.640 --> 00:28:00.519 minute quantity of hydrofluoric acid on the fermentation process, and 375 00:28:00.640 --> 00:28:04.319 of others upon the advantages gained by ventilation and by 376 00:28:04.359 --> 00:28:08.839 the use of pure yeast cultures. A knowledge of the 377 00:28:08.839 --> 00:28:12.160 normal composition of wine and beer has led to rational 378 00:28:12.200 --> 00:28:15.720 suggestions for the improvement of those liquors. It would be 379 00:28:15.799 --> 00:28:19.440 impossible to attempt even a bare enumeration of the more 380 00:28:19.480 --> 00:28:22.880 important innovations in this branch, many of which are due 381 00:28:22.960 --> 00:28:28.000 to pasture e g. The pasteurization of beer in no 382 00:28:28.119 --> 00:28:31.039 other section of technical chemistry. Have there been so many 383 00:28:31.079 --> 00:28:36.240 discoveries made by systematic investigation as in that of artificial dyes. 384 00:28:37.839 --> 00:28:40.799 The first anilin dye which was produced upon a technical 385 00:28:40.839 --> 00:28:44.559 scale was the MOV prepared by W. H. Perkin in 386 00:28:44.640 --> 00:28:48.799 eighteen fifty six by acting upon anoline with bichromate of 387 00:28:48.839 --> 00:28:52.759 potash and sulfuric acid, and it was to him that 388 00:28:52.799 --> 00:28:56.880 the introduction of the color industry is due. A. W. 389 00:28:57.079 --> 00:29:01.000 Hoffmann observed in eighteen fifty eight the formation of anolin 390 00:29:01.119 --> 00:29:05.960 red magenta, which was shortly afterward manufactured by another method 391 00:29:06.000 --> 00:29:10.200 by Virguine of Lyone and introduced into commerce under the 392 00:29:10.279 --> 00:29:14.200 name of fuchine. This was followed by the discovery of 393 00:29:14.240 --> 00:29:18.839 anolin blue, anolin violet, and anolin green, all of which 394 00:29:18.880 --> 00:29:22.440 were first prepared by Hoffmann himself, while he proved that 395 00:29:22.519 --> 00:29:27.000 all of them were derivatives of fuchine. The discovery of 396 00:29:27.039 --> 00:29:30.440 methyl violet by loth in eighteen sixty one and that 397 00:29:30.559 --> 00:29:34.599 of anolin black by Lightfoot in eighteen sixty three were 398 00:29:34.640 --> 00:29:39.240 of great practical importance. In addition to this, new and 399 00:29:39.359 --> 00:29:43.000 improved methods for the production of roseannolin dyes have been 400 00:29:43.039 --> 00:29:47.720 discovered and developed e g. Oxalic acid, formic aldehyde and 401 00:29:47.759 --> 00:29:52.480