Part two of Chapter eight of Aviation Instructor's Handbook by the FAA. This LibriVox
recording is in the public domain Part two of chapter eight. Assessment of piloting
ability. Assessment is an essential component of the teaching process. Determines what and
how well a student is learning. A well designed assessment provides a student with
something constructive upon which he or she can work or build. An assessment should
provide direction and guidance to raise the level of performance. Students must understand the
purpose of the assessment, otherwise they will be unlikely to accept the evaluation offered
and little improvement will result. There are many types of assessment, but the
flight instructor generally uses the review, Collaborative Assessment LCG, written tests, and
performance based tests to ascertain knowledge or practical skill levels. Refer to chapter five
for an in depth discussion of the types of assessment available to the flight instructor.
An assessment can also be used as a tool for reteaching, although not
all assessments lend themselves to reteaching. The instructor should be alert to the possibility
and take advantage of the opportunity when it arises. In assessing the ability of
a student. The instructor initially determines if he or she understands the procedure or
maneuver. Then the instructor demonstrates the maneuver, allows the student to practice the
maneuver under direction, and finally evaluates a student accomplishment by observing the performance demonstrated
ability. Assessment of demonstrated ability during flight instruction must be based upon established standards
of performance, suitably modified to apply the students experience and stage of development as
a pilot. The assessment must consider these students mastery of the elements involved in
the maneuver, rather than merely the overall performance. Order for a student to
be signed off for a solo flight, the CFI must determine that the student
is qualified and proficient in the flight tasks necessary for the flight. The CFI
bases this assessment on the student's ability to demonstrate consistent proficiency on a number of
flight maneuvers also associated with pilot skill evaluations during flight training or the stage checks
conducted in FAA approved school courses and their practical tests for pilot certificates and ratings
postflight evaluation. In assessing piloting ability, it is important for the flight instructor
to keep the student informed of progress. This may be done as each procedure
or maneuver is completed or summarized during the postflight critiques. Postflight critiques should be
in a written format, such as notes to aid the flight instructor in covering
all areas that were noticed during the flight or lesson. Traditionally, flight instructors
explained errors in performance, pointed out elements in which the deficiencies were believed to
have originated, and, if possible, suggested appropriate corrective measures. Traditional assessment
depends on a grading scale of excellent, good fare, poor or exceeds standards,
meets standards, needs more training, which often meets the instructor's needs but
not the needs of the student. With the advent of SPT, collaborative assessment
is used whenever the student has completed a scenario. As discussed in chapters four
and five, SBT uses a highly structured script of real world experiences to address
aviation training objectives in an operational environment during the post flight evaluation. Collaborative assessment
is used to evaluate whether certain learning criteria were met during the SPT. Collaborative
assessment includes learner self assessment and a detailed assessment by the aviation instructor. The
purpose of the self assess is to stimulate growth in the learner's thought processes and
in turn behaviors. The self assessment is followed by an in depth discussion between
the instructor and the student which compares the instructor's assessment to the student's self assessment
first solo flight. During the student's first solo flight, the instructor must be
present to assist in answering questions or resolving any issues that arise during the flight
to ensure the solo flight is a positive confidence building experience for the student.
The flight instructor needs to consider time of day when scheduling the flight. Time
of day is a factor in traffic congestion, possible winds, sun angles,
and reflection if possible. The flight instructure needs access to a portable radio during
any supervised solo operations. A radio enables the instructor determinate the solo operation if
he or she observes a situation developing. The flight instructor must use good judgment
when communicating with a solo student. Keep all radio communications to a minimum to
not talk to the student on short final of the landing approach post solo debriefing.
During a post solo debriefing, the flight instructor discusses what took place during
the student's solo flight. It is important for the flight instructor to answer any
questions the student may have as a result of a solo flight. Instructors need
to be involved in all aspects of the flight to ensure the student utilizes correct
flight procedures. It is very important for the flight instructor to debrief a student
immediately after a solo flight. With a flight vividly etched in the student's memory,
questions about the flight will come quickly correction of student errors. Correction of
student errors should not include the practice of immediately taking the controls away when a
mistake is made safety permitting, it is frequently better to let students progress part
of the way into the mistake and find a way out. For example,
a weight shift to control aircraft, the control bar is moved right to turn
left, A student may show an initial tendency to move the bar in the
direction of the desired turn. This tendency will dissipate with time, but allowing
the student to see the effect of his or her control input is a valuable
aid in illustrating the stability of the aircraft. It is difficult for the students
to learn a maneuver properly if they seldom have the opportunity to correct an error.
On the other hand, students may perform a procedure or maneuver correctly and
not fully understand the principles or objectives involved. When the instructor suspects this,
students should be required to vary the performance of the maneuver, slightly, combine
it with other operations, or apply the same elements to the performance of other
maneuvers. Students who do not understand the principles involved will probably not be able
to do this successfully. Pilot supervision flight instructors have the responsibility to provide guidance
and restraint with respect to the solo operations of their students. This is by
far the most important flight instructor responsibility. The flight instructor is the only person
in a position to make the determination a student is ready for solo operations.
Before endorsing a student for solo flight, the instructor should require the student to
demonstrate consistent ability to perform all of the fundamental maneuvers dealing with normal challenges.
Instructors should teach students how to solve ordinary problems encountered during flight traffic pattern,
congestion, change, an active runway, or unexpected crosswinds, or a challenge
the student masters individually before being able to perform them collectively. Visualization SPT lends
itself well to visualization techniques. For example, have a student visualize how the
flight may occur under normal circumstances, with the student describing how he or she
would fly the flight. Then the instructor adds unforeseen circumstances, such as a
sudden change in weather that brings excessive winds during final approach. Other examples of
SPT can have the instructor adding undesired landing sites for balloon student pilots, rope
brakes for glider students, and radio outages for instrument airplane students. Now,
the student must visualize how he or she will handle the unexpected change. During
this visualization, the flight instructor can ask questions to check the students thought processes.
The job of the instructor is to challenge the student with realistic flying situations
without overburdening him or her with unrealistic scenarios. Practice landings. The FAA recommends
that in all student flights involving landing in an aircraft, the flight instructor should
teach a full stop landing. Full stop landings help the student develop aircraft control
and checklist usage. Aircraft speed and control take precedence over all other actions during
landings and takeoffs. Stress landing in the first third of the runway to ensure
there is stopping distance for the aircraft. If the student is unable to land
in the first third, teach him or her to make an immediate go around.
If the student bounces an airplane on landing, teach the student to make
an immediate go around. By following these teaching guidelines, the student is better
equipped to properly execute landings when he or she solos. Furthermore, by requiring
the first solo flight to consist of landings to a full stop, the flight
instructor has the opportunity to stop the flight if necessary. In gliders, a
low energy landing is the most desirable based on current winds. This helps the
student develop good off field landing techniques. This is dependent on current weather such
as excess winds, including crosswinds. Practical test recommendations vision is made on the
Airman Certificate or Rating Application form for the written recommendation of the flight instructor who
has prepared the applicant for the practical test involved. Signing this recommendation imposes a
serious responsibility on the flight instructor. A flight instructor who makes a practical test
recommendation for an applicant seeking a certificate or rating should require the applicant to demonstrate
thoroughly the knowledge and skill level required for that certificate or rating. This demonstration
should, no instance be less than the complete procedure prescribed in the applicable pts.
When the instructor endorses the applicant for the practical test, his or her
signature on the FAA Form eighty seven to ten DASH one Airman Certificate and or
Rating Application is valid for sixty days. This is also true with a flight
proficiency endorsement that is placed in the applicant's log book or training record Advisory Circular
AC sixty one DISH sixty five. These two dates should be the same.
Completion of prerequisites for a practical test is another instructor task that must be documented
properly. Examples of all common endorsements can be found in the current issue of
AC sixty one DISH sixty five Appendix one. This appendix also includes references to
fourteen CFR Part sixty one Certification Pilots, Flight Instructors, and Ground Instructors for
more details concerning the requirements that must be met to qualify for each respective endorsement.
The examples shown contain the essential elements of each endorsement. It is not
mandatory, but recommended for all endorsements to be worded exactly as those in the
AC. For example, changes to regulatory requirements may affect the wording, or
the instructor may customize the endorsement for any special custances of the applicant. However,
at a minimum, the instructors needs to cite the appropriate fourteen CFR Part
sixty one section that has been completed. FAA inspectors and dpees rely on flight
instructure recommendations as evidence of qualification for certification and proof that a review has been
given of the subject areas found to be deficient on the appropriate knowledge test.
Recommendations also provide assurance that the applicant has been thoroughly briefed on the PTS and
the associated knowledge areas. Maneuvers and procedures. If the flight instructor has trained
and prepared the applicant competently, the applicant should have no problem passing the practical
test. A flight instructor who fails to ensure a student meets the requirements of
regulations prior to endorsing solo flight or additional rating exhibits a serious deficiency in performance.
The FAA holds him or her accountable. Providing a solo endorsement for a
student who is not fully prepared to accept the responsibility of solo flight operations,
or providing an endorsement for an additional rating to a pilot not meeting the appropriate
regulatory requirements is also a breach of faith with the applicant. Aeronautical decision making,
as discussed on page eight Dash two, aviation training and flight operations are
now seen as a system rather than individual concepts. The goal of system safety
is for pilots to utilize all four concepts ADM, risk management, situational awareness,
and SRM so that risk can be reduced to the lowest possible level.
ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently
determine the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.
Risk management is a decision making process designed to systematically identify hazards, assess the
degree of risk, and determine the best course of action associated with each flight.
Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions
within the four fundamental risk elements that affect safety before, during, and after
the flight. SRM is the art and science of managing all resources, both
on board the aircraft and from outside sources, available to a single pilot prior
and during flight to ensure the successful outcome of the flight. These key principles
are often collectively called ADM. The importance of teaching students affective ADM skills cannot
be over emphasized. While progress is continually being made in the advancement of pilot
training methods, aircraft equipment, and systems and services for pilots, accidents still
occur. Despite all the changes in technology to improve flight safety, one factor
remains the same, the human factor. It is estimated that approximately eighty percent
of all aviation accidents are human factors related. By taking a system approach to
aviation safety. Flight instructors interweave aeronautical knowledge, aircraft control skills, eight a
M, risk management, situational awareness, and SRM into the training process.
Historically, the term pilot error has been used to describe the cause of these
accidents. Pilot error means that an action or decision made by the pilot was
the cause of or contributing factor to the accident. This definition also includes the
pilot's failure to make a decision or take action. From a broader perspective,
the phrase human factors related more actively describes these accidents, since it is usually
not a single decision that leads to an accident, but a chain of events
triggered by a number of factors. The poor judgment chain or the error chain
describes this concept of contributing factors in a human factors related accident. Breaking one
link in the chain is all that is usually necessary to change the outcome of
a sequence of events. The best way to illustrate this concept to students is
to discuss specific situations that lead to aircraft accidents or incidents. The following is
an example of the type of scenario that could be presented to illustrate the poor
judgment chain. A private pilot with one hundred hours of flight time made a
precautionary landing on a narrow dirt runway at a private airport. The pilot lost
directional control during landing and swerved off the runway into the grass. A witness
recalled later that the aircraft appeared to be too high and fast on final approach,
and speculated the pilot was having difficulty controlling the aircraft in high winds.
The weather at the time of the incident was reported as marginal VFR due to
rain showers and thunderstorms. When the aircraft was fueled the following morning, sixty
gallons of fuel were required to fill the sixty two gallon capacity tanks. But
discussing the events that led to this incident, instructors can help students understand how
a series of judgmental errors contributed to the final outcome of this flight weather decision.
On the morning of the flight, the pilot was running late and having
acquired a computer print out of the forecast the night before, he did not
obtain a briefing from flight services before his departure. Flight planning decision slash performance
chart. The pilot calculated total fuel requirements for the trip based on a rule
of thumb figure he had used previously for another airplane. He did not use
the fuel tables printed to the Pilot's Operating Handbook POH for the aircraft who was
flying on this trip. After reaching his destination, this pilot did not request
refueling based on his original calculations. He believed sufficient fuel remained for the flight
home. Fatigue slash failures recognized personal limitations. In the presence of deteriorating weather,
the pilot departed for the flight home at five PM. He did not
consider how fatigue and lack of extensive knife flying experience could affect the flight fuel
exhaustion. With the aircraft fuel almost exhausted, the pilot no longer had the
option of diverting to avoid rapidly developing thunderstorms. He was forced to land at
the nearest air field available. On numerous occasions during the flight, the pilot
could have made decisions which might have prevented this incident. However, as the
chain of events unfolded, each poor decision left him with fewer and fewer options.
On the positive side, the pilot made a precautionary landing at a time
and place of his choosing VFR into IMC. Accidents often lead to fatalities.
In this case, the pilot landed at his aircraft without loss of life.
Teaching pilots to make sound decisions is the key to preventing accidents. Additional pilot
instruction has emphasized flying skills, knowledge of the aircraft, and familiarity with regulations.
ADM training focuses on the decision making process and the factors that affect a
pilot's ability to make effective choices. Timely decision making is an important tool for
any pilot. The student who hesitates when prompt action is required, or who
makes the decision to not decide, has made a wrong decision. Sometimes,
sound ADM calls for going against procedure. For example, in the event of
an engine fire, the pilot initiates an emergency descent. Some pohs call for
a mixture to be enriched during an emergency descent, but what if the power
plant is engulfed in flames. Emergencies require the pilot to think, assess the
situation, choose and execute the actions that assure safety, not act in a
rote manner. It is important for flight instructors to teach students that Declaring an
emergency when one occurs is an appropriate reaction. Once an emergency is declared,
Air Traffic Control ATC gives the pilot priority handling fourteen CFR Section ninety one point
three Responsibility and Authority of the Pilot in Command states that in an in flight
emergency requiring immediate action, the pilot in command may deviate from any rule of
this part to the extent required to meet that emergency. Flight instructors should incorporate
ADM risk management, situational awareness, and SRM throughout the entire training course for
all levels of students. AC sixty twenty two Aeronautical Decision Making provides background references,
definitions, and other information about ADM training in the GA environment. Figure
eight Dash seven The decision making process. An understanding of the decision making process
provides students with a foundation for developing ATM skills. Some situations, such as
engine failures, require pilot to respond immediately using established procedures with little time for
detailed analysis. Traditionally, pilots have been well trained to react to emergencies,
but are not as well prepared to make decisions which require a more reflective response.
Typically during a flight. The pilot has time to examine any changes that
occur, gather information, and assess risk before reaching a decision. The steps
leading to this conclusion constitute the decision making process. When the decision making process
is presented to students, it is essential to discuss how the process applies to
an actual flight situation. To explain the decision making process, the instructor can
introduce the following steps with the accompanying scenario that places the students in the position
of making a decision about a typical flight situation. Defining the problem. The
first step in the decision making process is to define the problem. This begins
with recognizing that a change has occurred or that an expected change did not occur.
A problem is perceived first by the senses and then is distinguished through insight
and experience. These same abilities, as well as an objective analysis of all
available information, are used to determine the exact nature and severity of the problem.
One critical error that can be made during the decision making process is incorrectly
defining the problem. For example, failure of a landing gear extended light to
illuminate could indicate that the gear is not down and locked into place, or
it could mean that the bulb is burned out. The actions to be taken
in each of these circumstances would be significantly different. Fixating on a problem that
does not exist can divert the pilot's attention from important tasks. The pilot's failure
to maintain an awareness of the circumstances regarding the flight now becomes the problem.
That is why, once an initial assumption is made regarding the problem, other
sources must be used to verify the pilot's conclusion is correct. While on a
cross country flight, Brenda discovers her time and route between two checkpoints is significantly
longer than the time she originally calculated. By noticing this discrepancy, she is
recognized a change. Based on insight cross country, a flying experience, and
knowledge of weather systems, she considers the possibility that she has an increased headwind.
She verifies that the original calculations are correct, and considers factors that may
have lengthened the time between checkpoints, such as a climb or deviation off course.
To determine if there is a change in the winds aloft forecast, and
to check recent pilot reports, she contacts a flight watch after Weighing each information
source, she concludes that the headwind has increased. To determine the severity of
the problem, she calculates a new ground speed and reassesses fuel requirements choosing a
course of action. After the problem has been identified, the pilot evaluates the
need to react to it and determines the actions that may be taken to resolve
the situation in the time available. The expected outcome of each possible action should
be considered and the risks assessed before the pilot decides on a response to the
situation. Brenda determines the fuel burn if she continues to her destination and considers
other options turning around and landing at a nearby airport, diverting off course,
or landing prior to her destination at an airport and route. She considers the
expected outcome of each possible action and assesses the risks involved. After studying the
chart, she concludes there is an airport which has refueling services within a reasonable
distance along her route. She can refuel there and continue to her destination without
a significant law of time implementing the decision and evaluating the outcome. Although a
decision may be reached and a course of action implemented, the decision making process
is not complete. It is important to think ahead and determine how the decision
could affect other phases of the flight. As the flight progresses, the pilot
must continue to evaluate the outcome of the decision to ensure that it is producing
the desired result. To implement her decision, Brenda plots the course changes and
calculates a new estimated time of arrival. She also contacts the nearest AFSS to
amend her flight planned and check weather conditions at the new destination. As she
proceeds to the airport, she continues to monitor ground speed, aircraft performance,
and weather conditions to ensure no additional steps need to be taken. To guarantee
the safety of the flight. Factors affecting decision making. It is important to
stress to a student that being familiar with the decision making process does not ensure
he or she has the good judgment to be a safe pilot. The ability
to make effective decisions as PC depends on a number of factors. Some circumstances,
such as the time available to make a decision, maybe beyond the pilot's
control. However, a pilot can learn to recognize these factors that can be
managed, and learn skills to improve decision making ability and judgment recognizing hazardous attitudes.
While the ADM process does not eliminate errors, it helps the pilot recognize
errors and in turn enables the pilot to manage the error to minimize its effects.
Two steps to improve flight safety are identifying personal attitudes hazardous to flight safety
and learning behavior modification techniques. Flight instructors must be able to spot hazardous attitudes
in a student because the recognition of hazardous thoughts is the first step toward neutralizing
them see if I's should keep in mind that being fit to fly depends on
more than just pilot's physical condition and recency of experience. Hazardous attitudes contribute to
poor pilot judgment and affect the quality of decisions. Attitude can be defined as
a personal motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or events in a
given manner. Studies have identified five hazardous attitudes that can affect a pilot's ability
to make sound decisions and exercise authority properly. Figure eight Dash eight. Figure
eight Dash eight text. Pilots should examine their decisions carefully to ensure that their
choices have not been influenced by a hazardous attitude. The five hazardous attitudes anti
authority, don't tell me. This attitude is found in people who do not
like anyone telling them what to do. In a sense, they are saying,
no one can tell me what to do. They may be resentful of
having someone tell them what to do, or may regard rules, regulations,
and procedures as silly or unnecessary. However, it is always pilot prerogative to
question authority. If it seems to be an error. In pulsivity, do
it quickly. This is the attitude of people who frequently feel the need to
do something anything immediately. They do not stop to think about what they are
about to do, They do not select the best alternative, and they do
the first thing that comes to mind. In vulnerability, it won't happen to
me. Many people believe that accidents happen to others, but never to them.
They know accidents can happen, and they know that anyone can be affected,
they never really feel or believe that they will be personally involved. People
who think this way are more likely to take chances and increase risk. Macho
I can do it. Pilots who are always trying to prove that they are
better than anyone else are thinking, I can do it, I'll show them.
Pilots with this type of attitude will try to prove themselves by taking risks
in order to impress others. While this pattern is thought to be a male
characteristic, women are equally susceptible resignation what's the use? Pilots who think what's
the use do not see themselves as being able to make a great deal of
difference in what happens to them. When things go well, the pilot is
apt to think that it is good luck. When things go badly, the
pilot may feel that someone is out to get me or attribute it to bad
luck. The pilot will leave the action to others for better or worse.
Sometimes such pilots will even go along with unreasonable requests just to be a nice
guy. And to figure eight eight text, In order for a student to
self examined behaviors during flight, he or she must be taught the potential risks
caused from hazardous attitudes, and more importantly, the antidote for each figure eight
dash nine. For example, if a student has an easy time with flight,
training and seems to understand things very quickly. There may be a potential
for that student to have a macho hazardous attitude. A successful c FI points
out the potential for the behavior and teaches the student the antidote for that attitude.
Hazardous attitudes need to be noticed immediately and corrected with a proper antidote to
minimize the potential for any flight hazard. The Year eight Dash nine text.
Students in training can be asked to identify hazardous attitudes and the corresponding antidotes when
presented with flight scenarios. Hazardous attitude macho Steve often brags to his friends about
his skills as a pilot and how close to the ground he flies. During
a local pleasure flight in a single engine airplane, he decides to buzz some
friends of barbecuing at a nearby park. Antidote Taking chances is foolish. Hazard
attitude anti authority. Although he knows that flying so low to the ground is
prohibited by the regulations, he feels that the regulations are too restrictive. In
some circumstances, antidote follow the rules they are usually right. Hazardous attitude in
vulnerability Steve is not worried about an accident, since he has flown this low
many times before and he has not had any problems. Antidote, it could
happen to me. Hazardous attitude impulsivity. As he is buzzing the park,
the airplane does not climb as well as Steve had anticipated, and without thinking,
he pulls back harder than the yoke. The air speed drops and the
airplane is close to stalling as the wing brushes a power line. Antidote,
not so fast, think first, hazardous attitude resignation. Although Steve manages to
recover the wing sustains minor damage, Steve thinks to himself, it doesn't really
matter how much effort that I put in. The end result is the same
whether I really try or not. Antidote, I'm not helpless. I can
make a difference. End to Figure eight. Nointext Stress management learning how to
recognize and cope with stress is another effective ADM tool. Stress is the body's
response to demands placed upon it. These demands can be either pleasant or unpleasant
in nature. The causes of stress for a pilot can range from unexpected weather
or mechanical problems while in flight to personal issues unrelated to flying, Stress is
an inevitable and necessary part of life. It adds motivation and heightens the individual's
response to meet any challenge. Everyone is stressed to some degree all the time.
A certain amount of stress is good since it keeps a person alert and
prevents complacency. However, the effects of stress are cumulative, and if not
coped with adequately, they eventually add up to an intolerable burden. Performance generally
increases with the onset of stress, peaks and then begins to fall off rapidly
as stress levels exceed a person's ability to cope. The ability to make effective
decisions during flight can be impaired by stress factors referred to as stressors can increase
a pilot's risk of error in the flight deck. Figure eight DAS ten.
Figure eight dah ten text. Three types of stressors that can affect pilot performance.
Physical stress conditions associated with the environment, such as temperature and humidity,
noise, vibration, and lack of oxygen. Physiological stress physical conditions such as
fatigue, lack of physical fitness, sleep loss, missed meals leading to low
blood sugar levels, and illness. Psychological stress, social or emotional factors such
as a death of the family, a divorce, a sick child, or
a demotion at work. This type of stress may also be related to mental
workload, such as analyzing a problem, navigating an aircraft, or making decisions
end to Figure eight dish ten text. One way of exploring the subject of
stress with a student is to recognize when stress is affecting performance. If a
student seems distracted or has a particularly difficult time accomplishing the tasks of the lesson,
the instructor can query the student. Was the student uncomfortable or tired during
the flight? Is there some stress in another aspect of the student's life that
may be causing a distraction. This may prompt the student to evaluate how these
factors affect performance and judgment. The instructor should also try to determine if there
are aspects of pilot training that are causing excessive amounts of stress for the student.
For example, if a student consistently makes the decision not to fly even
though weather briefings indicate favorable conditions, it may be due to apprehension regarding the
less in content. Stalls landings, or an impending solo flight may cause concern.
By explaining a specific maneuver in greater detail, or offering some additional encouragement,
the instructor may be able to alleviate some of the students stress. To
help students manage the accumulation of life stresses and prevent stress overload, instructors can
recommend several techniques. For example, including relaxation time in a business schedule and
maintaining a program of physical fitness can help reduce stress levels. Learning to manage
time more effectively can help pilots avoid heavy pressures imposed by getting behind schedule and
not meeting deadlines. While these pressures may exist in the workplace, students may
also experience the same type of stress regarding their flight training schedule. Instructors can
advise students to self assessed to determine their capabilities and limitations, and then set
realistic goals. In addition, avoiding stressful situations and encounters can help pallettes cope
with stress. Use of resources to make informed decisions during flight operations, students
must be made aware of the resources found both inside and outside the flight deck.
Since useful tools and sources of information may not always be readily apparent,
learning to recognize these resources is an essential part of a am training resources must
not only be identified, but students must also develop the skills to evaluate whether
they have the time to use a particular resource and the impact that its use
would have upon the safety of flight. For example, the assistance of eight
C may be very useful if a pilot is lost. However, in an
emergency situation when action needs to be taken quickly, time may not be available
to contact ATC immediately. During training, cfis can routinely point out resources to
students internal resources. Internal resources are found in the flight deck during flight.
Since some of the most valuable internal resources are ingenuity, knowledge, and skill,
pilots can expand flight deck resources immensely by improving their capabilities. This can
be accomplished by frequently reviewing flight information publications such as fourteen CFR and the Aeronautical
Information Manual AIM, as well as by pursuing additional training. A thorough understanding
of all the equipment and systems in the aircraft is necessary to fully utilize all
resources. For example, advanced navigation and autopilot systems are valuable resources. Flight
instructors must ensure students know how to use. If students do not fully understand
how to make use of the equipment, or if they rely on it so
much that they become complaisant, it can become a detriment to save flight.
With the advent of advanced avionics with class displays, GPS and autopilot, flying
may seem inherently easier and safer, but in reality it has become more complex
with the update of the Instrument Practical Test Standards PTS to include electronic flight instrument
displays, flight management systems GPS, and autopilot usage. Knowledge of internal resources
becomes an important component of flight training, as discussed in a section on flight
instructor qualifications. Instructors must be familiar with the components of each aircraft in which
they instruct To ensure students understand the operation of the equipment, Checklists or essential
flight DEECK resources for verifying that the aircraft instruments and systems are checked, set
and operating properly, as well as ensuring that the proper procedures are performed if
there is a system malfunction or in flight emergency. Students reluctant to use checklists
can be reminded. The pilots at all levels of experience referred to their checklists,
and that the more advanced the aircraft is, the more critical checklists become.
With the advent of electronic checklists, it has become easier to develop and
maintain personal checklists from the manufacturer's checklist with additions for specific aircraft and operations.
In addition, the AFM slash pH, which is required to be carried on
board the aircraft, is essential for accurate flight planning and for resolving in flight
equipment malfunctions. Other valuable flight deck resources include current aeronautical charts and publications such
as the Airport slash Facility Directory a slash FD. It should be pointed out
to students that passengers can also be a valuable resource. Passengers can help watch
for traffic and may be able to provide information in an irregular situation, especially
if they are familiar with flying. A strange smell or sound may alert a
passenger to a potential problem. The PIC should brief passengers before the flight to
make sure that they are comfortable voicing any concerns. External resources possibly the greatest
external resources during flight or air Traffic controllers and flight service specialists ATC can help
decrease pilot workload by providing traffic advisories, radar vectors and assistants in emergency situations.
AFSS can provide updates in weather, answer questions about airport conditions, and
may offer direction finding assistance. The services provided by ATC can be invaluable in
enabling pilots to make informed in flight decisions. Instructors can help new students feel
comfortable with ATC by encouraging them to take advantage of services such as flight following
and flight watch. If students are exposed to ATC as much as possible during
training, they feel confident asking controllers to clarify instructions and are better equipped to
use ATC as a resource for assistance in unusual circumstances or emergencies. Throughout training,
students can be asked to identify internal and external resources which can be used
in a variety of flight situations. For example, if a discrepancy is found
during preflight, what resources can be used to determine its significance? In this
case, the student's knowledge of the aircraft the pH an instructor or other experienced
pilot or an AMT can be a sorts which may help define the problem.
During cross country training, students may be asked to consider the following situation.
On a cross country flight, you become disoriented. Although you are familiar with
the area, you do not recognize any landmarks, and fuel is running load.
What resources do you have to assist you? Students should be able to
identify their own skills and knowledge aeronautical charts, ATC flight service and navigation equipment
as some of the resources that can be used in this situation. Workload management.
Effective workload management ensure as the essential operations are accomplished by planning, prioritizing,
and sequencing tasks to avoid work overload. As experience is gained, a
pilot learns to recognize future workload requirements and can prepare for high workload periods during
times of low workload. Instructors can teach the skill by prompting their students to
prepare for a high workload. For example, when en route, the student
can be asked to explain the actions that need to be taken during the approach
to the airport. The students should be able to describe the procedures for traffic
pattern, entry and landing preparation, reviewing the appropriate chart, and setting radio
frequencies well in advance of need. Helps reduce workload as the flight nears the
airport. In addition, the students should listen to the automatic Terminal Information Service
ATIS, Automated Service Observing Systems ASS or Automated Weather Observing System AWS if available,
and then monitor the tower frequency or Common Traffic Advisory Frequency CTAF to get
a good idea of what traffic conditions to expect. Checklists should be performed well
in advance so there is time to focus on traffic and ATC instructions. These
procedures are especially important prior to entering a high density traffic area such as Class
B airspace. To manage workload, items should be prioritized. This concept should
be emphasized to students and reinforced when training procedures are performed. For example,
during a go round, adding power, gaining airspeed, and properly configuring the
aircraft are priorities. Informing the tower of the balked landing should be accomplished only
after these tasks are completed. Students must understand that priorities change as the situation
changes. If fuel quantity is lower than expected on a cross country flight,
the priority can shift from making a scheduled arrival at the destination to locating a
nearby airport to refuel. In an emergency situation, the first priority is to
fly the aircraft and maintain a safe airspeed. Another part of managing workload is
recognizing a work overload situation. The first effect of high workload is that the
pilot begins to work faster. As workload increases, Attention cannot be devoted to
several tasks at one time, and the pilot may begin to focus on one
item. When the pilot becomes task saturated, there is no awareness of inputs
from various sources, decisions may be made on incomplete information, and the possibility
of error increases. Figure eights eleven. During a lesson, workload can be
gradually increased as the instructor monitors the student's management of tasks. The instructor should
ensure that the student has the ability to recognize a work overload situation. When
becoming overloaded, the student should stop, think, slow down, and prioritize.
It is important that the student understand options that may be available to decrease
workload. For example, locating an item on a chart or setting of radio
frequency may be delegated to another pilot or passenger. An Autopilot, if available,
may be used or ATC may be enlisted to provide assistance. Chapter Summary.
This chapter discussed the demonstration, performance and telling and doing training delivery,
methods of flight instruction, SBT techniques, practical strategies flight instructors can use to
enhance their instruction, Integrated flight instruction, positive exchange of flight controls, use
of distractions, obstacles to learning encountered during flight training, and how to evaluate
students after an intensive look at ADM, with suggestions for how to interweave ADM,
risk management and SRM into the teaching process. It closes with a discussion
of CFI recommendations. Additional information on recommendations and endorsements can be found in Appendix
E Flight Instructor Endorsements. End of Chapter eight