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Hello, and welcome to Western SIV, episode two hundred and ninety one.

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Queen Mary's early years. After Mary
survived her first rebellion, she grew almost

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overnight emboldened to a large extent.
We need to remember that religion was Mary's

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one and only issue. She was
the proverbial single issue candidate of the early

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modern period. And if we remember
that, then I think it helps us

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interpret the balance of her reign.
She certainly did other things that were not

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directly connected to religion, but they
were always with an eye toward achieving religious

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goals, which for Mary, of
course, meant the full restoration of Catholicism

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and reunion with Rome. Let me
give you an example. Mary's marriage to

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Philip the second of Spain had practical
implications, namely, it gave England an

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ostensible ally on the continent, and
a powerful one at that. But from

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Mary's perspective, this was about a
Catholic alliance and an heir, an heir

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that could continue Catholic restoration. We
have to remember that when Mary became queen

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she was in her late thirties.
If she was going to produce an air,

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she needed to do so right away. So I suppose it should come

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as little shock that Mary interpreted her
initial survival and triumph in late fifteen fifty

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three and early fifteen fifty four as
a sign of providential pleasure. This was

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what God wanted. Mary was certain
of that, so she turned up the

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pace of religious reform. Processions were
restored, all the feast days that were

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celebrated under Henry the Eighth returned,
and critical clerical celibacy was back. All

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the priests who had wed in Edward's
reign had to renounce their wives and consorts.

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Those who did not lost their benefices. Those who did normally kept them,

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but it was not a guarantee.
There was also a very subtle change

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that few people noticed. Mary removed
any requirement for the English to take the

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oath of supremacy. No one had
to swear, as they did under Henry

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and Edward, that the monarch was
the head of the English Church. But

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to anyone paying attention, the message
was clear. This paved the way for

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a return to Rome, and of
course there was another issue, Henry himself.

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It was impossible for anyone to ignore
the reality that King Henry the Eighth

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was the person who had orchestrated the
break with Rome. He was never misled

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by wicked advisers. He had done
it himself of his own free will.

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Now, normally English monarchs exalted those
of their line when speaking about the past.

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But when Mary did this with reference
to her father in a letter to

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the papal legate Reginald Pole back in
fifteen fifty three, she was soundly rebuked.

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He wasn't worth honoring. Pole wrote
back, how could you honor the

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man who had killed Sir Thomas Moore. Pole pointedly told Mary that if she

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wouldn't speak ill of her father,
then she needed at least stop honoring him.

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Now, for Mary, we need
to remember this might not have been

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too big of an ask. Henry
had divorced her beloved mother and then written

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Mary out of her own inheritance.
The two had been estranged for much of

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Mary's life. Psychologically, it might
have actually done Mary some good to admit

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to herself that her father was not
a hero worth emulating, though of course

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much of this we can never know
for certain. Momentum for reconciliation with Rome

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was growing. Whole frustrated that the
process was not more immediate, pressured Stephen

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Gardner endlessly to make it happen to
an extent, this was not necessary.

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Gardener, it had seemed, had
converted, once a close ally of royal

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supremacy in Henry the Eighth. Gardener
now firmly believed that reunion with Rome was

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not only morally right, but inevitable. It was God's will to correct a

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wayward people. Now, not everyone
shared Gardner's desire to turn back the clock.

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A lot of people just looked at
the situation from a practical perspective.

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Many had gone from Henry to Edward
and now Mary with a simple shrug of

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the shoulders. They just didn't see
royal supremacy as that big of a deal.

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Gardener, at a dinner party in
early fifty ten fifty four, was

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reportedly told by another dinner guest that
all this was pointless, jipper jabbering royal

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supremacy had nothing to do with issues
of doctrine. Of course, not everyone

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agreed, but my guess is that
many people really didn't care. They just

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wanted to get on with their lives. Sadly, the late sixteenth century,

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as we will see, was not
filled with enough of those people to avoid

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an ocean of bloodshed for others,
including Gardner, the years of blood between

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Henry and Edward's reign had just truly
changed things. As I mentioned, a

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lot of blood had already been spilt. Gardner had watched as his friends were

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tried and condemned for treason, and
that he himself confined to the Tower of

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London. He knew what might happen
if Mary should run out of time,

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and time was of the essence.
In fact, we know in early fifteen

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fifty four he was literally champing at
the bit to get legislation before Parliament,

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reversing Henry and Edwards's legislation and restoring
England to Rome. As the new parliament

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opened on April third, fifteen fifty
four, feelings were still quite raw.

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Evangelicals were conquered, but had by
no means surrendered. Anti papal sentiments remained

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high, as did animosity toward the
Spanish marriage. Still, the Catholic faction

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now pressed its advantage. Six Evangelical
bishops were sacked and replaced with Catholics.

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Three of the old bishops were trotted
out for a mock debate at Oxford on

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the fourteenth of April on the nature
of transubstantiation, among other topics, it

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should come as no surprise that the
Royal moderator of said debate duly declared the

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Catholic side victorious, though I should
point out, by all neutral accounts the

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Evangelicals more than held their own.
What it really looked like any observer was

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a dry run for a heresy trial, and if you lose those, you

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burn. The new bishops were efficient
in their posts. All married clergy were

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deprived of their positions. In London, where the Evangelical faction had been the

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most successful, this amounted to about
thirty percent of the clergy. Many of

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these men repented and returned to their
positions, but a significant portion did not.

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Clerical marriage would be one of the
battle lines in the fight to come.

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Politics remained at the heart of everything. In the spring fifteen fifty four,

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it was impossible to get anything significant
through Parliament because there were simply too

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many factions and none of them agreed
on much. Mary remained the official of

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the Church. Parliament turned down a
few heresy charges, not because it doubted

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the guilt of the men in Vaulved, but because Paget, among others,

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feared that it might be a prelude
to seizure of old ecclesiastical lands and many

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members of Parliament on those lands.
The marriage treaty with Philip was confirmed,

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but honestly barely sure. The leading
Edwardian evangelicals remained in prison, but to

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what end? It increasingly looked like
Mary didn't have the votes or even the

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basis to launch proceedings against them.
Now, some things did move forward.

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On July thirteenth, Philip arrived in
England for the wedding. Reportedly, and

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reportedly should be underlined in this sentence, everyone was overjoyed with the news.

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Of course, privately that certainly wasn't
the case, though there were, truth

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be told, a massive amount of
festivities, and everybody loves feasting. It

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had been a long time since a
royal wedding, after all. Yet if

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theirs was a match made in Heaven, there were reasons to doubt the chances

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of the marriage's success here on earth. Philip was more than ten years younger

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than Mary, who had never been
a beauty, truth be told, and

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even in her younger days, the
two had little in commons save religion.

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They didn't even speak the same language. Philip spoke to his betrothed in Spanish,

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Mary replied in French. Throughout the
proceedings, Philip's alleged Englishness was played

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up. Trumpeters declared that he was
descended from Edward I, a dubious claim

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at best. Philip did his best
to put any reservations about his rule to

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rest. He told his English lords
that they should continue to prepare to be

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English. While those words did go
a long way to quell uneasiness, at

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least in the part of the Great
Magnates in London, xenophobic commoners remained unconvinced.

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Wild rumors circulated, including that Philip
intended to make a Spanish friar the

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Archbishop of Canterbury. He didn't.
The rumors went both ways too. The

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Catholic faction leaked a rumor that Mary
was already pregnant. She wasn't, nor

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could she have known even if she
were. But such was the state of

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England in that time that no one
knew what to believe. Things picked up

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pace again in September fifteen fifty four. In that month, a Catholic bishop,

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Bishop Bonner, announced he would make
a complete visitation of his diocese and

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would personally examine the clergy therein on
all points of doctrine. Anyone found lacking

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would be removed. He did this
without royal or even papal authority. Bonner

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believed he acted quote out of his
zeal for God's service end quote. That

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was enough, at least for him. Interestingly, Bonner was another of our

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reformed Catholic bishops, a one time
loyal servant of Thomas Cromwell and a fierce

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critic of the pope. He had
evidently seen the light. His new process

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highlighted the two key themes of the
Catholic restoration in England, a return to

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Catholic liturgical life and forced Orthodoxy.
In truth, the two were one and

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the same. The Iconoclasm of fifteen
forty seven to fifteen fifty two left parishes

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emptied of nearly everything needed for the
daily, weekly, and seasonal performance of

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the Catholic faith. Bonner provided an
extensive shopping list of items parishes needed to

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have or get quickly. Foremost,
everyone needed a high stone altar with all

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its consecrated and dedicated and quote not
any gravestone taken from the burial and put

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up for an altar end quote.
He had to make that specific because a

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lot of people were doing it.
Other necessary parts were for the mass of

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course, were a chalice, crewits
for the wine and water, candlesticks,

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a bell for ringing at the elevation. You needed a set of vestments for

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the priest, surplices for the clerk, a container for the incense, a

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sensor for burning it, a pack
spread, a picks for the reserved sacrament.

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Of picks. By the way,
for those who don't know, is

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what you take the holy sacrament away
from the church in It's like a vessel

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for those who were too ill to
come to church, a curtain for veiling

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the altar and lent. In addition, of course, you had to have

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a missile. Parishes were to have
seven other liturgical books in general, covering

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every range of services. In every
church. There was to be a rude

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and a roote loft quote, as
in times past hath been a custom end

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quote. All parishes were to ensure
that they had the necessary cross and banners

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for processions. A separate cross was
required for funerals, along with a buyer

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for the dead and for routine and
ritual blessings. There must be a christmatory

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for holy oils, a stoop for
holy water in church, and of course,

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a vessel for carrying it around.
All this, Bonner said was the

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bare minimum of a sacramental religion.
The articles did not require the reinstallation of

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images devotionally desirable, but at least
from Bonner's perspective, for right now liturgically

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inessential. It was a challenging list, and some churches protested that the demands

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were simply impossible. By and large, however, the parishes of Bonner's diocese

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Drew Beth, knuckled down and figured
out a way to get the stuff they

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needed. Many parishes were able to
mend broken altars and demand the return of

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their holy plate from the parishioners who
had bought them. There were some legal

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battles over the return of ecclesiastical properties, and a couple of times these did

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get vicious, but across England in
fifteen fifty four the pattern of restoration was

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quite impressive. In Bath, eighty
four percent of parishes had an altar by

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that fall. Some were they aforementioned, and banned recycled gravestones, but for

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the moment these worked all the same. By the end of fifteen fifty four,

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according to official accounting, in all, one hundred and sixty eight parishes

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across England high altars were rebuilt,
vestments and books reobtained. Physically, at

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least, the restoration was going quite
a well now truth be told. Of

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course, many parishes were using stop
apps solutions while more expensive options could be

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fundraised. But we also have evidence
that said fundraising was going pretty well.

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Now. Restoration is a more loaded
word than might at first appear. There

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could be no question of merely going
back. Rudes, alters, images,

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investments were no longer what they had
once perhaps been. They were the cultural

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foliage and a landscape of meaning,
assumed to be natural and God given.

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Now all such objects had been profoundly
and irrevocably politicized by prolonged processes of discussion,

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sometimes defense, sometimes denigration, and
sometimes destruction. Replacing them was an

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assertive but also a very divisive act. It was a statement of faith in

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an alternative future. It wasn't an
invocation of a vanished past. There simply

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was no go going back. It
was a future that some people dearly hoped

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not to see. In summer fifteen
fifty four, shortly after the route was

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set up in Saint Paul's, a
man joined a large crowd in front of

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it, bowed low and addressed the
image in mocking and seditious words. Quote,

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Sir, your mastership is welcome to
town. I had thought to have

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talked with your mastership, but that
ye here be clothed in the Queen's colors.

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I hope ye to be a summer
bird, and that ye be dressed

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in white and green end quote.
Bonner failed to see the funny side.

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Those who quote played the fool in
the church end quote were part of a

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range, an extensive range of religious
miscreants, clerical and lay, and he

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aimed to discipline them. Gone.
Now were the vague exhortations to unity and

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charity, with instructions not to call
your neighbors a heretic or a papist.

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Knew the kind of people he was
looking for, and now he wanted names.

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Married priests were a particular concern.
There was to be a record of

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all who had been married, and
of any still consorting with their quote unquote

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concubines. Such marriages were not just
moral lapses, they were schismatical. Without

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episcopal reconciliation, no married priest would
be allowed to celebrate Mass, and nor

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was Mass to be said by any
clergymen made schismatically and contrary to the old

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ordering custom of the Catholic Church,
priests ordained under the Edwardian Ordinal were not

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priests at all, period, full
stop. Now, the greatest fear was

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of married priests or others quote naming
themselves ministers end quote, and presiding over

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secret assemblies or conventicles, and teaching
doctrine that was not accustomed to the Catholic

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Church. It was also a worry
that lay people might attends such gatherings or

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in other ways withdrawal from the collective
worship, the Catholic worship by failing to

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confess, receive the sacramented Easter,
or bring in their children to be confirmed.

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An eye was to be kept out
for any who, at service time

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quote feigned occasions and quote doth use
to go abroad, out of their own

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parishes and into the fields end quote. And of course those who on Sundays

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kept themselves secretly to their houses.
Much of the concern, however, was

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not about discreet withdrawal from Catholic practices, but argumentative engagement with them who they

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wanted to know spoke against sacraments in
prayer for the dead, who mocked and

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jeered at the pre saying mass,
who expounded scripture on their own authority.

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What printers and booksellers disseminated slanderous books. Again, if there had been some

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vague nod towards religious tolerance at the
beginning of Mary's Realm, it was very

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quickly fading away. Bonner's articles give
the impression not so much of large scale

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withdrawal of evangelicals into schism as a
variety of disruptive semi separatists within the parameters

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of the parish. Heretics at times
declined to take part in this procession or

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that procession, or perhaps contribute to
the weekly Holy Loaf. They might bring

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their children to be baptized, but
quote not suffer the priest to dip the

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child three times end quote. Worst
of all, they might come to Mass,

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but then refuse to receive the sacrament, or find ways to express disdain

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for the holiest of holies. The
visitations were met with some grumbling resistance,

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but many people were more than willing
to turn on their neighbors and name names.

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In London fifteen fifty four, four
hundred and fifty charges were leveled on

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the basis of such accusations. The
commonest accusation was failing to attend church on

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Sundays or another holy day. But
there were other charges as well that were

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more serious, speaking against ceremonies,
for example. The great majority of these

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brought before the court in fifteen fifty
four repented and returned to the church.

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This likely did not mean many people
in England had changed what they thought.

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It meant that England was trying to
figure out again how to live under a

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different set of rules. The whirlwind
was becoming dizzying. Indeed, in early

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fifteen fifty four, John Bradford Than, a resident of the Tower of London,

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wrote a treatise. The question was
about conformity, namely, was it

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right for someone who knew quote the
truth to attend Mass. His answer an

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emphatic no. Those who knew it
to be wrong, but conformed out of

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weakness and cowardice were simply figures of
contempt. His real argument was with the

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people who believed it was permissible to
be there, that is, in church,

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in body, while worshiping God secretly
and inwardly. The Mass, he

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wrote, had no cracks through which
such freedom of spirit might escape. It

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was a quote mar Malorium a sea
of evils, an idolatrous, insidious miasma

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of corruption and defilement to hear mass
or even be in church while it was

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being said, there was a sin
breaking quote all God's laws, generally in

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every commandment, particularly end quote.
There was short shrift for the idea that

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attendants could be redeemed by displays of
disrespect at the elevation of the host.

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That was like a servant willingly accompanying
thieves to his master's house and expecting to

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be excused because he didn't actually steal
anything himself. Nor did Bradford neglected objection.

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That was his only incorrect theologically but
presumably often posed quote offending our brethren

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in not coming to mass end quote. Here sadly he said, there was

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little to be done. It was
a case of offense taken, not given,

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for the evil of the thing.
Meant it could never be offensive to

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avoid an attack it to refuse the
mass was to invite retribution. But Bradford's

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only practical advice for the people of
England was to take up their cross and

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prepare to follow the true faith,
the evangelical faith. His view was typical

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across Europe. Views toward conforming began
to Harden. Such conformists were now called

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Nicodemus, after the pharisee who visited
Jesus secretly by night. The evangelical leader

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Heinrich Bollinger wrote an entire sermon decrying
the actions of those who attended Mass,

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while rejecting its premise. Many of
the people demanding that Englishmen stand up for

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their faith, however, were no
longer in England. The number of those

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who left in fifteen fifty four were
staggering, perhaps as many as a thousand,

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so I suppose it was a bit
easier for them to be critical.

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The new Catholic bishops were more than
happy to see them go. Gardner even

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helped make arrangements for a few to
leave the country. That doesn't mean it

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was an easy decision for people.
Many of those who left were influential evangelical

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preacher who were abandoning their flocks by
doing so. We have a number of

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accounts detailing just what a difficult choice
this was for so many. Ironically,

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many of those who fled moved to, of all places, Catholic Italy.

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It was just easier to get lost
in the masses there. Some left cities

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and towns but didn't actually leave England. The evangelical printer John Day left London

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in fifteen fifty four for a little
village called Barham, where he continued to

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operate a secret printing press until Mary's
death years later. Not every kingdom overseas

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was willing to accept refugees either.
A few sympathetic princes in Germany outright refused

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00:24:44.519 --> 00:24:49.839
to accept evangelicals out of fear of
angering Charles the Fifth. As always during

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this age, politics and religion refused
at the hip. One English refugee later

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wrote, quote, lost the saving
truth at home and found it abroad.

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Our countrymen are become our enemies,
and our strangers are made our friends.

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End quote. There's a lot hidden
in this sentence of critical importance to our

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00:25:12.359 --> 00:25:18.759
later story. A schism was beginning
to form in the evangelical ranks, even

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00:25:18.799 --> 00:25:25.160
if no one knew it yet.
After Mary's death, many of these exiles

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are going to return. They will
then claim that they represent a sort of

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00:25:30.440 --> 00:25:37.720
untainted church. The stage was already
being set for the religious conflicts of Elizabethan

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00:25:37.880 --> 00:25:42.079
England. For the moment, the
arena of trouble that sort of indicates all

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00:25:42.119 --> 00:25:48.680
this is Frankfurt, an imperial free
city of largely Lutheran complexion. It enjoyed

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00:25:48.720 --> 00:25:52.640
an uneasy friendship with Charles the Fifth
after remaining loyal to him in the bout

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00:25:52.640 --> 00:25:56.839
of warfare brooking out in fifteen fifty
two. Early in fifteen fifty four,

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00:25:57.359 --> 00:26:03.799
the Frankfurt Town Council granted permission to
settle the remnants of a small stranger church,

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00:26:03.319 --> 00:26:10.240
a community of French weavers from Glastonbury
in England. As other English exiles

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00:26:10.240 --> 00:26:14.720
began to arrive that summer, the
council insisted that they shouldn't dissent from the

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a Frenchman who had already arrived.
In doctrine or ceremony. It was an

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00:26:19.680 --> 00:26:26.119
assertive performance of liturgies just banned in
England that might be seen as a provocation

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00:26:26.519 --> 00:26:30.759
to both Philip and Mary. In
practice, these axiles found they could use

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00:26:30.799 --> 00:26:36.559
their prayer book, but tailored it
to resemble the liturgy of the French Congregation,

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00:26:37.119 --> 00:26:42.160
which was derived from Calvin's Geneva.
New prayers and psalms were added and

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00:26:42.200 --> 00:26:48.440
the litany discarded. The quiet local
arrangements were barely in place when on the

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00:26:48.480 --> 00:26:53.519
second of August fifteen fifty four,
the leaders of the congregation, prominent among

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00:26:53.559 --> 00:26:57.920
them, A man by the name
of William Whittingham sent an eye catching letter

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00:26:59.079 --> 00:27:03.279
to other English Ales. It invited
them all to come and settle in Frankfurt,

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00:27:04.160 --> 00:27:10.519
where worship was subject to no control
and the church was free from all

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00:27:10.599 --> 00:27:18.000
superstitious ceremonies. The implication that other
refugees worshiped superstitiously was provocative, to say

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00:27:18.000 --> 00:27:25.880
the least. Englishmen then living in
Zurich and Strasburg reported that while minor changes

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00:27:25.920 --> 00:27:30.400
were permissible, the continued use of
the Prayer Book was vital. They wanted

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00:27:30.400 --> 00:27:37.279
to show solidarity with persecuted brethren still
in England and to rebut papist accusations that

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00:27:37.319 --> 00:27:42.880
the Protestants were constantly shifting and changing
positions. Hardened in November fifteen fifty four

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00:27:44.440 --> 00:27:48.359
when John Knox, a veteran of
battles over the fifteen fifty two Prayer Book,

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00:27:48.960 --> 00:27:53.519
was invited by the Frankfurt Congregation to
become their minister. He immediately allied

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00:27:53.599 --> 00:28:00.359
himself with the aforementioned Whittingham. His
co minister, Thomas Lever, then took

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00:28:00.359 --> 00:28:04.920
the opposite view. Bail would prove
to be just as controversial as Knox himself.

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00:28:06.680 --> 00:28:11.519
Both then wrote to John Calvin who
returned their responses in fifteen fifty five

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00:28:11.599 --> 00:28:19.200
in January, somewhat wearily urging all
sides to compromise. In March fifteen fifty

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00:28:19.200 --> 00:28:23.240
five, the Strasburg community decided to
take matters in hand. A party of

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00:28:23.240 --> 00:28:29.079
exiles there traveled north to Frankfurt.
But at the very first divine service,

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00:28:29.440 --> 00:28:34.240
these newcomers loudly interjected that the prayer
book responses were being omitted by the Frankfurt

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00:28:34.279 --> 00:28:40.519
congregation. When challenged, they answered
that quote this has the face of an

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00:28:40.519 --> 00:28:47.319
English church end quote. Knox responded
angrily. It wasn't long before the two

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00:28:47.359 --> 00:28:52.240
groups broke into aschism of their own. Knox was content when all of the

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00:28:52.279 --> 00:28:57.680
exiles from Strasburg were sent back,
but this didn't quell the underlying tensions.

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00:28:59.519 --> 00:29:03.759
What did it mean, Did you
have to conform in some way to the

307
00:29:03.839 --> 00:29:10.119
changing nature of religious laws in England
or did you have to remain completely pure?

308
00:29:10.960 --> 00:29:15.000
Again? These were the fault lines
already forming that are going to fracture

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00:29:15.119 --> 00:29:19.960
in the years to come. The
experience of the exile enabled growing numbers of

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00:29:19.960 --> 00:29:25.400
English Protestants to see more clearly than
ever that they were not in fact bound

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00:29:25.440 --> 00:29:30.880
to the legacy of Henry the Eighth
limited to adapting, reforming, or refining

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00:29:30.920 --> 00:29:34.559
the old structures that he had rested
control from the pope. A church could

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00:29:34.599 --> 00:29:41.960
be reconstituted from its very first and
fundamental principles. The desire to do this

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00:29:41.559 --> 00:29:48.119
and the fear sometimes of doing this
would henceforth pull the movement of evangelical reform

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00:29:48.559 --> 00:29:55.720
in evermore conflicting directions. But while
new fault lines opened up on one side

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00:29:55.759 --> 00:30:00.839
of the broad religious divide among English
Catholics, a twenty ear schism was drawing

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00:30:00.880 --> 00:30:06.759
finally to an end in a very
different gesture of repudiation to the legacy of

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00:30:06.759 --> 00:30:11.960
Henry the Eighth. In late fifteen
fifty four, within the court of Queen

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00:30:11.000 --> 00:30:18.079
Mary, the decision was at last
taken. The English Church was coming home

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00:30:18.799 --> 00:30:23.599
to roam. If you've enjoyed the
episode, feel free to check out the

321
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00:30:26.119 --> 00:30:30.200
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