WEBVTT 1 00:00:20.480 --> 00:00:25.519 Hello, and Welcome to Western civ. Episode two hundred and ninety A glorious 2 00:00:25.760 --> 00:00:31.800 union. Throughout the nation, everyone rejoiced at the news of Mary's ascension. 3 00:00:32.719 --> 00:00:38.200 Mary was proclaimed queen on the twenty second of July fifteen fifty three at Bridge 4 00:00:38.240 --> 00:00:44.840 North. Reportedly, bonfires were lit at every street. Little did everyone know 5 00:00:45.240 --> 00:00:49.039 those bonfires were a sign of things to come, and they just weren't the 6 00:00:49.119 --> 00:00:55.119 kind of bonfires everyone was expecting. But for the moment, nothing happened. 7 00:00:56.079 --> 00:01:00.359 The nation that summer was primed for a religious war that simply never came to 8 00:01:00.399 --> 00:01:07.439 fruition. From the pulpit, various evangelical preachers denounced both Mary and Elizabeth as 9 00:01:07.519 --> 00:01:12.000 bastards who would stop at nothing to return England to its papal past. Mary 10 00:01:12.519 --> 00:01:15.760 did her best not to fan these flames, though, truth be told, 11 00:01:17.640 --> 00:01:22.680 but not insignificant number of her supporters were Catholic, that is true, but 12 00:01:23.120 --> 00:01:27.079 she was very careful at this point. She based her claim to the throne 13 00:01:27.200 --> 00:01:34.359 on her legitimacy through her father, not on religion, at least for the 14 00:01:34.359 --> 00:01:40.879 moment. Her legitimacy was based on her father's will, which did of course 15 00:01:42.000 --> 00:01:48.000 designate her as her heir should Edward die without a child, which he did. 16 00:01:49.640 --> 00:01:55.840 Now, Ultimately, the contest between those two queens from the last episode, 17 00:01:56.159 --> 00:02:01.000 Mary and Jane was really a contest between two days kings, Henry and 18 00:02:01.159 --> 00:02:07.400 Edward. Henry I guess we shouldn't be surprised one out, and so Mary 19 00:02:07.719 --> 00:02:15.240 had become queen. Now there were some who believed the restoration of Henry the 20 00:02:15.280 --> 00:02:21.360 Eighth's daughter would mean a restoration not of Catholicism, but of his brand of 21 00:02:21.400 --> 00:02:28.479 religion, of this sort of compromise that had made his rule palatable for so 22 00:02:28.599 --> 00:02:34.479 many. But again, for the moment, Mary didn't move in any direction 23 00:02:34.719 --> 00:02:44.560 religiously. Abroad, evangelicals weren't fooled, they wrote, prophesizing doom. This 24 00:02:44.639 --> 00:02:47.960 would be the end of the true religion in England. They knew it. 25 00:02:49.599 --> 00:02:53.159 Even if it didn't come quickly, it would happen. They weren't wrong either. 26 00:02:54.280 --> 00:03:01.039 By September in that year, every major evangelical preacher was either incarcerated in 27 00:03:01.080 --> 00:03:07.520 some way or had fled the realm. Even Bishop Kramner found himself the unwilling 28 00:03:07.639 --> 00:03:14.280 guest of the Tower that very month. Interestingly, by and large, these 29 00:03:14.319 --> 00:03:20.400 men simply swapped places in these various prisons with the Conservatives who had been locked 30 00:03:20.479 --> 00:03:27.439 up before them. As example, as Cranmer walked into prison, the old 31 00:03:27.840 --> 00:03:32.199 Bishop Gardner walked out, and there were many other examples of the same sort 32 00:03:32.199 --> 00:03:38.759 of switcheroo. To some reformers, this was all a sign of God's displeasure. 33 00:03:39.759 --> 00:03:43.960 They needed to atown for some sin, even if they didn't really know 34 00:03:44.000 --> 00:03:47.960 what that sin was. That being said, others were just a lot more 35 00:03:49.000 --> 00:03:53.360 pragmatic about the whole situation. Paget, the former secretary to Henry the eighth 36 00:03:53.400 --> 00:03:59.520 and Privy Council member under Edward the sixth, resolved to simply swallow his principles 37 00:03:59.560 --> 00:04:03.000 and of the regime, as he had under the other two kings. By 38 00:04:03.039 --> 00:04:08.000 the end of July, as another example, Princess Elizabeth was in Mary's court 39 00:04:08.080 --> 00:04:12.479 wishing her well, playing the good part, and she'd played the good Catholic 40 00:04:12.520 --> 00:04:16.000 part as much as she needed. By the way. Throughout England, many 41 00:04:16.040 --> 00:04:24.360 evangelical preachers suddenly, and rather inexplicably, it had changes of heart. Before 42 00:04:24.560 --> 00:04:28.639 July was out, these men were just back to saying the traditional Mass as 43 00:04:28.680 --> 00:04:35.839 though nothing had changed. Perhaps the clock could be turned back after all. 44 00:04:36.000 --> 00:04:40.800 At least in the summer of fifteen fifty three. For a moment to Mary, 45 00:04:40.839 --> 00:04:44.839 it appeared like it might be. It was hard, of course, 46 00:04:44.879 --> 00:04:49.759 to determine which of these conversions or reversions I suppose were genuine and which were 47 00:04:49.800 --> 00:04:56.519 merely the product of force. None of them were clear cut. Nowhere was 48 00:04:56.560 --> 00:05:01.800 the transition from old to new and back again more clear than during Edward's funeral. 49 00:05:02.560 --> 00:05:04.399 He had died, by the way, and we still hadn't had his 50 00:05:04.439 --> 00:05:12.480 funeral. So Mary ultimately relented and allowed Archbishop Cranmer to perform the service using 51 00:05:12.519 --> 00:05:17.959 the fifteen fifty two prayer book. It was his last public act as archbishop. 52 00:05:18.000 --> 00:05:24.160 However, meanwhile, in the Tower of London, Mary, who had 53 00:05:24.199 --> 00:05:29.240 not attended that funeral, was listening to Catholic requiems for her brother, uttered 54 00:05:29.279 --> 00:05:31.879 by non author than Stephen Gardner, who was about to walk out of the 55 00:05:31.920 --> 00:05:38.160 tower a free man. Now things began to boil over though in August. 56 00:05:39.160 --> 00:05:43.319 On August eleventh, in London, a priest was interrupted while saying the traditional 57 00:05:43.399 --> 00:05:48.000 mast a chance of quote you lie. A near riot ensued. Somebody threw 58 00:05:48.040 --> 00:05:53.240 a dagger which struck straight into the pulpit, and I shot on that one. 59 00:05:53.560 --> 00:05:58.600 Now, interestingly, there's an argument that this episode was cooked, that 60 00:05:58.720 --> 00:06:03.160 it was completely Corey graft by evangelicals who wanted to stir up trouble so that 61 00:06:03.160 --> 00:06:10.240 they would have an excuse to move people toward religious conflict. Now, absent 62 00:06:10.399 --> 00:06:13.560 more evidence, it's impossible to say whether this is true or not, but 63 00:06:13.680 --> 00:06:17.519 it's an interesting idea. If true, it's safe to say that these people 64 00:06:17.519 --> 00:06:23.399 didn't know what they were getting themselves into. A few days later, the 65 00:06:23.399 --> 00:06:29.199 Privy Council issued a decision to the town mayor that's London that all unlicensed preaching 66 00:06:29.560 --> 00:06:35.120 should be prevented. However, the decision came alongside a really interesting statement from 67 00:06:35.160 --> 00:06:41.959 Mary. Quote, Albeit her Grace's conscience is stayed in matters of religion. 68 00:06:42.600 --> 00:06:49.000 Yet she meaneth graciously not to compel or constrain other men's consciences other thaise than 69 00:06:49.120 --> 00:06:54.959 God shall, or as she trusteth, put in their hearts a persuasion of 70 00:06:55.000 --> 00:06:59.360 the truth that she is in through the opening of His Word, unto them 71 00:06:59.439 --> 00:07:06.279 by godly, virtuous and learned preachers end quote. This was an almost remarkable 72 00:07:06.439 --> 00:07:13.560 statement in favor of what seuns like religious toleration, especially for an age that 73 00:07:13.600 --> 00:07:17.120 had no concept of separation of church and state, but it was likely just 74 00:07:17.160 --> 00:07:23.160 a tactic. Mary knew that London for the moment was pretty decidedly against her. 75 00:07:24.040 --> 00:07:26.959 For the moment, she would not provoke the wrath of the capitol. 76 00:07:28.399 --> 00:07:31.439 Mary followed up on this with another proclamation on the eighteenth of August, once 77 00:07:31.480 --> 00:07:39.079 again expressing her intention not to force religious conformity, though she added for herself 78 00:07:39.079 --> 00:07:45.279 at least she quote cannot hide that religion which God and the world knoweth she 79 00:07:45.399 --> 00:07:49.720 hath ever professed from her infancy and quote, of course she means Catholicism. 80 00:07:50.480 --> 00:07:57.319 It was England's first ever declaration of formal religious toleration, albeit an explicitly temporary 81 00:07:57.319 --> 00:08:01.680 one at least in the countryside. What all this meant was, in practical 82 00:08:01.800 --> 00:08:07.399 terms, Catholicism was back. It had never really completely left the rural parts 83 00:08:07.399 --> 00:08:13.920 of England. In fact, one contemporary remark that by September the third there 84 00:08:13.000 --> 00:08:18.639 was hardly a parish in rural England in which mass was not being said. 85 00:08:20.519 --> 00:08:26.319 Interestingly, Parliament had never repealed the Book of Common Prayer nor the requirement to 86 00:08:26.480 --> 00:08:31.759 use it, so for a few months at least Mary's administration simply encouraged people 87 00:08:31.840 --> 00:08:35.679 to break the standing law, the laws under Edward the sixth, which for 88 00:08:35.759 --> 00:08:41.600 the moment were still in place. What they did was they simply refused to 89 00:08:41.759 --> 00:08:48.039 enforce those laws. For their part, evangelicals continued to hold to the letter 90 00:08:48.120 --> 00:08:52.559 of the law. Altars were rebuilt, and then under the law they were 91 00:08:52.600 --> 00:09:01.080 torn down and they were rebuilt again. Community was essentially in open schism. 92 00:09:03.080 --> 00:09:07.960 Once Parliament opened in October. The evangelicals, however, lost even their legal 93 00:09:09.000 --> 00:09:13.440 standing. On October, the first Mass was said before the Queen's official coronation. 94 00:09:15.360 --> 00:09:18.320 On October the fifth Mass was said again, this time for the opening 95 00:09:18.320 --> 00:09:26.759 of Parliament. Edwardian clergymen protested noisily but ineffectually. Parliament then proceeded to invalidate 96 00:09:28.039 --> 00:09:33.519 all the religious legislation enacted under Edward the sixth. They just wiped it away. 97 00:09:33.480 --> 00:09:39.480 Clerical marriage was overturned, Divine service was returned to the age of Henry 98 00:09:39.519 --> 00:09:43.519 the eighth, not before, and that's going to be a key sticking point. 99 00:09:43.639 --> 00:09:50.360 There remained some pockets of resistance. One firebrand evangelical preacher continued using the 100 00:09:50.360 --> 00:09:54.240 Book of Common Prayer until late December fifteen fifty three. On January the third 101 00:09:54.240 --> 00:10:00.240 fifteen fifty four, thirty London preachers were hauled before a tribunal which demand to 102 00:10:00.279 --> 00:10:03.240 know why Mass was not being said in Latin. Apparently, so much for 103 00:10:03.320 --> 00:10:09.679 religious toleration right, at least so far as the government was concerned. The 104 00:10:09.720 --> 00:10:13.840 war for the mass was over, the conservative faction had won, and everybody 105 00:10:13.840 --> 00:10:18.120 had to get in line. Yet, as always I need to remind you, 106 00:10:18.679 --> 00:10:24.200 conformity cannot be taken for true acceptance. Really, what we have going 107 00:10:24.200 --> 00:10:28.039 on in England between fifteen forty seven and fifteen fifty four is, in the 108 00:10:28.039 --> 00:10:35.080 words of one great historian I'm not one of those are kind of protracted theological 109 00:10:35.080 --> 00:10:41.200 symposium involving the entire country, and one in which the people actually got to 110 00:10:41.279 --> 00:10:45.960 vote, at least in some ways. But if Mary and her advisors took 111 00:10:46.039 --> 00:10:48.919 all of this as evidence that the war over England's religion was a done deal, 112 00:10:48.960 --> 00:10:54.159 they were sadly mistaken. No one wanted to know other war of the 113 00:10:54.279 --> 00:10:58.360 roses, that was very true. But once the dust from the succession crisis 114 00:10:58.399 --> 00:11:05.799 settled, there was no way of knowing that the people would resist these efforts 115 00:11:05.080 --> 00:11:22.559 at religious conformity. On the twelve of November fifteen fifty three, James Brooks, 116 00:11:22.559 --> 00:11:28.480 master of Bayol College, Oxford, and chaplain to Stephen Gardner, took 117 00:11:28.519 --> 00:11:33.759 his turn in the pulpit at Paul's Cross. His sermon was a powerful lament 118 00:11:33.159 --> 00:11:37.840 for the sins of the schism a time. He said of quote, change 119 00:11:37.840 --> 00:11:43.279 in doctrine, change in books, change in tongues, change in altars, 120 00:11:43.559 --> 00:11:48.039 change in placing, change in gesture, change in apparel, change in bread, 121 00:11:48.440 --> 00:11:54.000 change in giving, change in receiving, with many changes, more so 122 00:11:54.039 --> 00:12:01.000 that we had still change upon change, and like never to have left changing 123 00:12:01.240 --> 00:12:05.720 till all the world had been changed end quote. To remedy, this, 124 00:12:05.840 --> 00:12:09.960 in his opinion, was a return to the true Catholic Church, to the 125 00:12:11.000 --> 00:12:16.240 mystical body of Christ. Brooks sermon would later be reprinted. Yet a couple 126 00:12:16.240 --> 00:12:22.399 of words, curiously, Pope, Holy Father and Bishop of Rome were all 127 00:12:22.519 --> 00:12:28.159 omitted. By Christmas fifteen fifty three, Mary had very effectively turned black the 128 00:12:28.200 --> 00:12:33.720 clock to fifteen forty seven to the Church of Henry. The eighth. Reunion 129 00:12:33.759 --> 00:12:39.879 with Rome, however, would be another matter. For years people had been 130 00:12:39.919 --> 00:12:46.919 bombarded with claims and allegations of papal depravity to get people to suddenly accept reunion 131 00:12:46.919 --> 00:12:52.879 with Rome would be a tall order, and it's worth pointing out that even 132 00:12:52.960 --> 00:12:58.480 some conservative preachers, such as Stephen Gardner himself, weren't willing to turn back 133 00:12:58.519 --> 00:13:03.200 the clock. Prior to fifteen forty seven, at least not initially. One 134 00:13:03.279 --> 00:13:11.279 piece of Edwardian legislation was still very much in place, the Chantries Act of 135 00:13:11.320 --> 00:13:16.240 fifteen fifty three. You see, back under Henry the Eighth a lot of 136 00:13:16.240 --> 00:13:22.720 people had supported the disillusion of the monasteries. A lot of people had bought 137 00:13:22.080 --> 00:13:30.039 church property. Now technically canon law held that you could not alienate church property 138 00:13:30.080 --> 00:13:35.519 from the church. The Chantries Act gave legal protection to those who had bought 139 00:13:35.600 --> 00:13:41.440 those lands, and purchasers of monastic lands had every reason to feel nervous. 140 00:13:41.480 --> 00:13:46.840 In early fifteen fifty four, Gardner himself had once written in support of the 141 00:13:46.879 --> 00:13:54.639 disillusion. His evangelical opponents, now somewhat gleefully pointed out how closely he was 142 00:13:54.679 --> 00:14:03.519 skirting hypocrisy. Across the English Channel. Everyone watched affairs in England. Rome 143 00:14:03.639 --> 00:14:09.559 was overjoyed for decades, Kingdom after kingdom had leaked away from Rome. Now 144 00:14:09.600 --> 00:14:15.440 it looked like Mary, dubbed the Queen of Heaven by the Pope would reverse 145 00:14:15.519 --> 00:14:20.320 this trend. On August the fifth, fifteen fifty three, Pope Julius the 146 00:14:20.360 --> 00:14:28.559 Third appointed Englishman Reginald Pohle his official legate to England. His instructions were to 147 00:14:28.559 --> 00:14:35.200 reconcile the English people to the Roman Church. He even had authority to absolve 148 00:14:35.320 --> 00:14:41.120 people who had purchased monastic lands, so long as they at least made a 149 00:14:41.159 --> 00:14:46.799 token gesture of offering to return them first. But the mood in Rome quickly 150 00:14:46.879 --> 00:14:54.120 soured. Many cardinals believed it was too early to just launch Pole into action. 151 00:14:54.120 --> 00:15:00.480 They believed Mary needed time to consolidate her government before England and could be 152 00:15:00.559 --> 00:15:07.240 reconciled to the Roman Catholic Church. The Imperial advisers, also constantly present in 153 00:15:07.320 --> 00:15:15.120 her court, counseled Mary to be patient. The mass was easy, restoring 154 00:15:15.159 --> 00:15:20.759 relations with Rome and dealing with property issues were much bigger asks. Better, 155 00:15:20.919 --> 00:15:26.919 they said, to move slowly. Parliament had been willing to declare Catherine of 156 00:15:26.039 --> 00:15:33.600 Arragon's marriage to Henry valid, but for the moment that was all a scheme 157 00:15:33.679 --> 00:15:41.039 to restore religious law to fifteen thirty two and therefore restore Rome's supremacy through sort 158 00:15:41.080 --> 00:15:48.159 of backdoor legislation was ultimately rejected. For the moment, the English Church would 159 00:15:48.159 --> 00:15:52.320 stay in limbo, allied to Rome but independent of it. But there was 160 00:15:52.360 --> 00:15:58.120 more to being queen than simply religion. Mary had other pressing affairs to deal 161 00:15:58.200 --> 00:16:03.000 with as well. Pressing of these was her need to marry. For her 162 00:16:03.080 --> 00:16:07.720 line to continue. She needed an air. Moreover, there was a huge 163 00:16:07.759 --> 00:16:12.240 stigma against women in positions of power in Tudor, England. Henry the Eighth 164 00:16:12.320 --> 00:16:17.519 himself had written in fifteen thirty two, with Mary firmly in mind, by 165 00:16:17.559 --> 00:16:25.039 the way a female ruler quote cannot govern long without a husband end quote. 166 00:16:25.279 --> 00:16:32.639 Mary's instincts were to seek a renewed dynastic union with the Habsburgs. Initially she 167 00:16:32.720 --> 00:16:37.159 thought about Charles the fifth, far too old for her, but whatever though, 168 00:16:37.200 --> 00:16:41.559 he quickly nixed that suggestion. Instead, he pushed for union with his 169 00:16:41.679 --> 00:16:48.240 son, the Spanish born Philip. He was a widower since fifteen forty five, 170 00:16:48.559 --> 00:16:52.720 when his then wife died giving birth to their son. There was really 171 00:16:52.759 --> 00:16:56.799 only one domestic alternative anyway, a guy by the name of Edward Courtney, 172 00:16:57.240 --> 00:17:03.159 Earl of Devon. Edward, a staunch conservative, had just been released from 173 00:17:03.200 --> 00:17:07.440 the Tower on Mary's ascension and in the Tower, Edward had become very close 174 00:17:07.480 --> 00:17:14.519 to Stephen Gardner, who now pushed his cause. Courtney's candidacy never really got 175 00:17:14.559 --> 00:17:18.960 off the ground, though he was not suited to be king. He was 176 00:17:18.319 --> 00:17:23.039 rash and intemperant. Plus he had been a prisoner since he was twelve years 177 00:17:23.079 --> 00:17:27.880 old and really had no courtly connections at all. Her marriage to him would 178 00:17:27.920 --> 00:17:33.920 bring Mary few, if any benefits. Regardless, Mary made up her mind 179 00:17:34.000 --> 00:17:41.680 quickly. On October twenty ninth, she swore to Mary Philip before the Imperial 180 00:17:41.680 --> 00:17:47.720 ambassador. The news quickly leaked, and Mary found herself summoned before the House 181 00:17:47.759 --> 00:17:52.759 of Lords to explain the decision. She was arked at that complaining a male 182 00:17:53.160 --> 00:17:59.960 would never have been treated dustly. She wasn't wrong, but it didn't matter 183 00:18:00.119 --> 00:18:06.039 her. The English lords were set at the moment against having a Spanish king. 184 00:18:07.319 --> 00:18:11.680 Gardner realized, probably rightly, that a Spanish match, combined with a 185 00:18:11.720 --> 00:18:18.519 full Catholic restoration, was more than the kingdom could stomach. These were problems 186 00:18:18.559 --> 00:18:23.480 that became exponential when they were combined. Now, Sadly, as we'll see, 187 00:18:25.039 --> 00:18:36.319 Mary's not going to listen if Philip is the man about to become the 188 00:18:36.400 --> 00:18:40.160 King of England, we should probably know something about him. Philip, as 189 00:18:40.200 --> 00:18:44.480 we know, was the firstborn son of Charles the fifth and Isabella of Portugal. 190 00:18:45.279 --> 00:18:48.319 Due to the lengthy absences of his father, he mainly grew up with 191 00:18:48.319 --> 00:18:53.279 his mother, absorbing a Spanish mentality and lifestyle. Born in valadelid On the 192 00:18:53.279 --> 00:18:57.119 twenty first of May fifteen twenty seven, he would have been twenty seven at 193 00:18:57.119 --> 00:19:03.599 the time he married Queen Mary. The Prince was an intelligent child and received 194 00:19:03.720 --> 00:19:07.839 in all around education, making him one of the smartest monarchs of the time. 195 00:19:07.440 --> 00:19:12.000 He developed a passion for collecting books and art objects, but he also 196 00:19:12.119 --> 00:19:18.039 collected mechanical instruments and a lot of relics. Philip the second of Spain was 197 00:19:18.119 --> 00:19:22.160 very much a man of the age. Certainly he was a monarch of the 198 00:19:22.200 --> 00:19:26.359 age. In fact, he might be what we could properly describe as the 199 00:19:26.359 --> 00:19:32.200 first early modern monarch. He was a respected lawyer and advised his bureaucrats to 200 00:19:32.319 --> 00:19:36.599 quote learn about the personality of their children and quote, by which, of 201 00:19:36.599 --> 00:19:40.759 course, he meant his people. Like many people, he believed in astrology. 202 00:19:41.480 --> 00:19:45.640 In fact, he had both he and Mary's horoscopes prepared by the English 203 00:19:45.720 --> 00:19:49.960 magician John Dee, but he could also be very skeptical of magic. On 204 00:19:49.960 --> 00:19:55.559 one occasion, when presented by a classical source on astronomy, he claimed the 205 00:19:55.720 --> 00:20:00.359 entire thing was hogwash, noting how because the Romans were not Christians, they 206 00:20:00.359 --> 00:20:07.920 could not believe anything they liked, but that hardly made it true. Philip, 207 00:20:07.160 --> 00:20:11.200 like many monarchs at the time, was seduced by the allure of alchemy. 208 00:20:11.279 --> 00:20:15.160 He wanted to be able to turn metals into gold and silver, and 209 00:20:15.200 --> 00:20:18.279 of course he had good reason, as we'll find out, to want that. 210 00:20:19.039 --> 00:20:23.519 Philip was always short on money, something he inherited from his father. 211 00:20:25.240 --> 00:20:29.400 In fact, he had to suspend interest payments to his bankers in fifteen seventy 212 00:20:29.400 --> 00:20:34.599 seven. Eventually, however, he learned his lesson and would later describe alchemy 213 00:20:34.839 --> 00:20:41.279 as a fake science as a great hoax. He would support pharmacists until the 214 00:20:41.359 --> 00:20:45.960 end of his life, though Philip was a big believer in early modern medicine, 215 00:20:45.960 --> 00:20:51.680 even if most of it was nothing but quack cures. Philip knew he 216 00:20:51.720 --> 00:20:56.279 could not prolong his life forever, but he certainly hoped to use whatever means 217 00:20:56.319 --> 00:21:03.200 at his disposal to extend it somewhat. The consultants who worked at the famous 218 00:21:03.480 --> 00:21:08.319 palace of Philip the Second. The Escorial epitomized the spirit of adventure, experimentation, 219 00:21:08.960 --> 00:21:15.400 empiricism, and faith that infused almost every facet of Spanish and European culture, 220 00:21:17.240 --> 00:21:22.000 one aspect perhaps of the same spirit of discovery that had launched the Spaniards 221 00:21:22.000 --> 00:21:26.960 on their conquest of the New World. An English Catholic called Richard Stanhorst wrote 222 00:21:27.000 --> 00:21:33.880 a small tract specifically for Philip, entitled The Touchstone of Alchemy, explaining how 223 00:21:33.920 --> 00:21:38.240 to distinguish between Charlatan's and the true practitioners of the art. He wrote, 224 00:21:38.319 --> 00:21:44.839 quote, be neither unduly credulous nor wholly disbelieving, for the Indies would have 225 00:21:44.880 --> 00:21:51.680 gone undiscovered if no one had believed Columbus end quote. While Philip clearly kept 226 00:21:51.680 --> 00:21:56.720 an open mind about astrology and the wider claims of alchemy, he was deeply 227 00:21:56.799 --> 00:22:03.720 and obsessively superstitious about the power of religious relics. As Protestants across his ancestral 228 00:22:03.720 --> 00:22:10.240 domains in Northern Europe publicly abandoned their faith in these sacred talismans, he had 229 00:22:10.279 --> 00:22:15.519 an army of agents at work, acquiring as many desiccated cadavers, heads and 230 00:22:15.720 --> 00:22:21.720 other saintly body parts, hairs from the head of the Madonna, and pieces 231 00:22:21.720 --> 00:22:26.960 of the True Cross as they could find, kind of like ancient questing Nazis 232 00:22:27.000 --> 00:22:33.640 from the old Indiana Jones movies. Luther had joked of the widespread forgery of 233 00:22:33.680 --> 00:22:37.480 relics, the three hundred men would not be enough to carry all the pieces 234 00:22:37.480 --> 00:22:41.400 of the cross then revered across Christendom, and Philip was greatly amused that his 235 00:22:41.519 --> 00:22:48.480 enthusiasm had encouraged a flourishing cottage industry foraging for the full range. This accumulation 236 00:22:48.799 --> 00:22:55.119 of sacred bits and pieces was clearly in part of a political charge affirmation of 237 00:22:55.160 --> 00:22:59.640 the Council of Trent and the counter Reformation. In other words, spending all 238 00:22:59.680 --> 00:23:03.119 this month to acquire parts of the True Cross wasn't anything about the Cross itself, 239 00:23:03.200 --> 00:23:10.240 necessarily, it was about affirming the values of Catholicism. It could also 240 00:23:10.319 --> 00:23:15.559 be a demonstration of his centralizing power, as was his compulsory purchase of Saint 241 00:23:15.640 --> 00:23:19.920 Lawrence's head from a convent in Santiago de Compostela in the face of bitter opposition 242 00:23:21.160 --> 00:23:26.559 from the nuns and archbishop there. But he also believed very much. He 243 00:23:26.599 --> 00:23:30.359 amassed seven thousand, four hundred and forty nine AH, just one shy of 244 00:23:30.400 --> 00:23:36.519 seventy five hundred individual relics by the time of his death. And as he 245 00:23:36.640 --> 00:23:41.960 lay dying agonizing, his body bursting with sores, his blood poisoned, unable 246 00:23:41.000 --> 00:23:45.319 to move from his soiled bed, racked by fever and thirst, he sustained 247 00:23:45.359 --> 00:23:51.319 himself for an incredible fifty three days by putting his faith in these objects of 248 00:23:51.400 --> 00:23:56.880 devotion. He had amongst him Saint Sebastian's knee, Albin's rib, and Vincent 249 00:23:56.920 --> 00:24:03.200 Ferrer's arm placed next to his own own corresponding and painful body parts as he 250 00:24:03.319 --> 00:24:10.160 listened to readings from Teresa of Avila. Philip was therefore in the words of 251 00:24:10.279 --> 00:24:12.440 many, and I suppose this typifies the very age, the end of the 252 00:24:12.440 --> 00:24:18.200 sixteenth century, middle to end of the sixteenth century a man and a period 253 00:24:18.759 --> 00:24:23.160 of great contradictions. In fifteen forty eight, Philip left Spain for the first 254 00:24:23.160 --> 00:24:29.640 time, spending several years visiting the various territories under Habsburg Dominion. He also 255 00:24:29.720 --> 00:24:33.559 met representatives of the Austrian line of the dynasty, in contrast to most of 256 00:24:33.559 --> 00:24:38.200 the Habsburgs from the generations that preceded him, who as a rule, experienced 257 00:24:38.400 --> 00:24:45.680 in extremely polygot and international upbringing. Philip had grown up in Spain with Castilian 258 00:24:45.759 --> 00:24:48.880 Spanish as his mother tongue, and he hadn't really learned any other languages. 259 00:24:49.640 --> 00:24:56.279 He spoke very little French, Italian or German, reinforced by his aloof nature. 260 00:24:56.799 --> 00:25:00.720 This shortcoming is going to hinder communication with the who did not speak Spanish, 261 00:25:02.119 --> 00:25:06.720 and in fact under his ability to communicate with Queen Mary. As a 262 00:25:06.759 --> 00:25:11.640 result, he soon acquired a reputation for arrogance, especially amongst his Austrian relatives. 263 00:25:11.400 --> 00:25:17.279 In the Low Countries, he encountered the rich cultural life of these regions, 264 00:25:17.279 --> 00:25:19.000 which was, as we're going to find out, to leave a very 265 00:25:19.200 --> 00:25:22.920 lasting mark on him for the rest of his life, though he would be 266 00:25:22.960 --> 00:25:30.480 a keen collector of the works by the Flemish masters. Philip did not succeed 267 00:25:30.559 --> 00:25:33.319 his father, Charles the Fifth as ruler of Spain, the Low Countries, 268 00:25:33.319 --> 00:25:38.319 and various Italian domains until fifteen fifty five, when Charles the Fifth finally and 269 00:25:38.400 --> 00:25:45.839 permanently retired. At that time, Charles severed his European Empire, granting his 270 00:25:45.920 --> 00:25:51.160 Austrian and German holdings to his brother Maximilian Loss. At the time that Philip 271 00:25:51.240 --> 00:25:55.359 was engaged to marry, he was on the cusp of becoming one of the 272 00:25:55.400 --> 00:26:00.480 most powerful men in Erahim, but he wasn't quite there yet. The marriage 273 00:26:00.480 --> 00:26:03.799 were thrashed out in early December. Children of the match would inherit England and 274 00:26:03.839 --> 00:26:07.680 the Netherlands, but have no claim to Spain in its empire, while Don 275 00:26:07.759 --> 00:26:12.119 Carlos's line continued. Philip, as joint sovereign, would receive the title of 276 00:26:12.200 --> 00:26:18.200 king, but retain no rights in England if Mary predeceased him. Moreover, 277 00:26:18.480 --> 00:26:22.960 he was not to exercise authority in his own right, grant English offices to 278 00:26:22.039 --> 00:26:27.160 foreigners, or take the queen abroad without the consent of the nobility. The 279 00:26:27.200 --> 00:26:34.359 strikingly restrictive provisions were designed to alleviate anxieties in England. Philip considered them demeaning 280 00:26:34.640 --> 00:26:40.759 and swore secretly that he did not consider himself bound by them, even without 281 00:26:40.799 --> 00:26:45.680 knowing that some Englishmen decided that the marriage must be stopped and Mary forcibly removed 282 00:26:45.680 --> 00:26:51.960 from the throne. The conspiracy that was hatched in November, ten days before 283 00:26:51.960 --> 00:26:57.200 Mary rebuffed the parliamentary delegation four members of Parliament, among them Sir Peter Carew 284 00:26:57.680 --> 00:27:03.519 and Thomas Throckmore met secretly with other prominent figures, including the former Clerk to 285 00:27:03.559 --> 00:27:10.480 the Council William Thomas, the former Lord Deputy of Ireland, Sir James Croft, 286 00:27:10.880 --> 00:27:15.519 a former Gloucestershire MP and member of the Council. In the Marches, 287 00:27:15.920 --> 00:27:22.680 Sir Nicholas Arnold, and the Kentish landowner and soldier Sir Thomas Wyatt All were 288 00:27:22.720 --> 00:27:27.039 staunch evangelicals. They were soon joined by the Duke of Suffolk, who had 289 00:27:27.119 --> 00:27:32.400 escaped lightly only a few days imprisonment in the Tower for his part in the 290 00:27:32.440 --> 00:27:37.640 pseudo reign of his daughter. The plan was to replace Queen Mary with the 291 00:27:37.640 --> 00:27:44.000 Princess Elizabeth. She would have the legitimacy conferred upon her by Henry the Eighth's 292 00:27:44.039 --> 00:27:48.559 will, and moreover, she would then be married to Edward Courtney, the 293 00:27:48.599 --> 00:27:52.279 man that Mary rejected for Philip, who was brought into the scheme though he 294 00:27:52.359 --> 00:27:59.559 remained patently unreliable. The French were also very much in on the plot, 295 00:28:00.079 --> 00:28:04.400 as Henry the Second in Paris had zero point zero percent interest in seeing a 296 00:28:04.440 --> 00:28:10.720 Habsburg on the English throne. Elizabeth, for her part, was aware of 297 00:28:10.759 --> 00:28:15.839 the plot but never intimately involved. She continued to play the part of the 298 00:28:15.920 --> 00:28:22.039 dutiful half sister throughout Christmas fifteen fifty three. Regardless, the elaborate plan never 299 00:28:22.079 --> 00:28:26.079 came to pass. On January the second, fifteen fifty four, Philip arrived 300 00:28:26.079 --> 00:28:30.880 in London to mostly a shower of jeers and a couple of stones. That 301 00:28:30.000 --> 00:28:34.839 same day, the Privy Council convinced a nervous Sir Peter Carew that the government 302 00:28:34.960 --> 00:28:41.440 was very much in on him and knew about his little conspiracy. By January 303 00:28:41.440 --> 00:28:45.960 the eighteenth, suspicious activity in French ports led many to believe an invasion was 304 00:28:45.000 --> 00:28:52.240 imminent. Three days later, Archbishop Gardiner got Edward Courtney to spill the proverbial 305 00:28:52.279 --> 00:28:56.319 beans on the whole thing, and the conspirators all fled the capitol like rats, 306 00:28:56.480 --> 00:29:02.599 fleeing a sinking ship to the countryside. But Sir Peter boarded a ship 307 00:29:02.640 --> 00:29:07.960 for exile in France that same week. He was done conspiring. Wyatt was 308 00:29:08.000 --> 00:29:12.319 not in Kent. He raised the standard of rebellion with the usual claims that 309 00:29:12.319 --> 00:29:17.000 this was not about the queen, but rather about ridding her of her wicked 310 00:29:17.039 --> 00:29:22.799 advisers. The message he was pedlig was easy to predict. The Spanish were 311 00:29:22.839 --> 00:29:26.359 coming. They would dominate England. Unless the marriage will stopped right now, 312 00:29:26.400 --> 00:29:32.039 the Pope would be in charge now Whyatt was actually pretty successful in Kent. 313 00:29:32.920 --> 00:29:37.079 More noble families fought with him than against him, though most remained aloof the 314 00:29:37.119 --> 00:29:41.920 watch out for the Spanish message was a good one. On January the twenty 315 00:29:41.960 --> 00:29:45.079 eighth, the Duke of Norfolk led an army of five hundred men to try 316 00:29:45.079 --> 00:29:51.680 and destroy Wyatt, but his men promptly defected to the rebels. Evidently this 317 00:29:51.720 --> 00:29:55.880 had been pre arranged by the way. Wyatt now had three thousand men and 318 00:29:56.000 --> 00:29:59.799 nothing between him and London. But in a tale as old as time, 319 00:30:00.079 --> 00:30:04.440 he moved too slowly. Anti Spanish sentiment in London was reaching a fever pitch. 320 00:30:04.519 --> 00:30:10.880 Yet he dithered, taking pointless Royalist house after pointless Royalist house, all 321 00:30:10.920 --> 00:30:15.559 while giving Mary the time to regroup and recover. Mary remained firm in the 322 00:30:15.559 --> 00:30:21.000 capitol. She would not flee. Instead, she delivered a series of rousing 323 00:30:21.359 --> 00:30:26.279 and somewhat misleading speeches to London citizenry. I mean if Wyatt can make stuff 324 00:30:26.359 --> 00:30:29.799 up. She can too, right, she claimed. Whyatt was coming to 325 00:30:29.920 --> 00:30:33.359 sack London. She said he wasn't and they needed to band together to stop 326 00:30:33.440 --> 00:30:38.839 him. Ultimately, Wyatt didn't reach London until the third of February, but 327 00:30:38.880 --> 00:30:44.039 by the seventh he still seemed poised to take the city, and he moved 328 00:30:44.039 --> 00:30:48.400 faster he almost certainly would have. Yet Mary remained firm. She refused to 329 00:30:48.480 --> 00:30:55.160 leave, and in the end that was enough. London refused to open its 330 00:30:55.160 --> 00:31:00.119 gates. Wyatt suddenly found his supporters melting away, in no mood for a 331 00:31:00.160 --> 00:31:07.799 siege. Wyatt then allowed himself to be arrested. While Mary later would claim 332 00:31:07.799 --> 00:31:11.839 that she had been saved by divine intervention, she had not. She had 333 00:31:11.880 --> 00:31:18.440 been saved by what was essentially London's own referendum on her rule. London Head 334 00:31:18.640 --> 00:31:27.559 picksides it would keep Queen Mary for now. There was an inevitable reckoning in 335 00:31:27.640 --> 00:31:33.039 London. Quote one sees nothing but gibbets and hanged men, and quote a 336 00:31:33.079 --> 00:31:37.359 witness wrote. On the seventeenth of February, Wyatt was executed, as was 337 00:31:37.400 --> 00:31:41.839 now the Duke of Suffolk, in about one hundred others at various places in 338 00:31:41.880 --> 00:31:45.519 London and Kent. The bulk of the Kentish participants were pardoned by the Queen 339 00:31:45.920 --> 00:31:52.400 in a choreographed show of royal mercy, after being paraded before her with symbolic 340 00:31:52.480 --> 00:31:57.720 halters around their necks. Courtney, likewise was pardoned. There was merciful justice, 341 00:31:57.759 --> 00:32:00.680 perhaps more than she deserved, for the woman the conspirators intended to be 342 00:32:00.759 --> 00:32:07.480 Courtney's consort. Letters seized from the French ambassador's courier implicated the Princess Elizabeth. 343 00:32:08.759 --> 00:32:13.200 It was the view of some that for the safety of the realm, including 344 00:32:13.279 --> 00:32:17.920 by the way Archbishop Stephen Gardner, that Elizabeth had to die, But despite 345 00:32:17.960 --> 00:32:22.000 some close questioning in the tower, no really solid evidence could be found, 346 00:32:22.480 --> 00:32:28.880 and Wyat performed Elizabeth a last service by swearing at his execution on the eleventh 347 00:32:28.920 --> 00:32:34.880 of April that neither she nor Edward Courtney was privy to his plans. In 348 00:32:34.920 --> 00:32:38.559 May, Elizabeth was sent from the tower to house arrest in Woodstock, Oxfordshire. 349 00:32:39.200 --> 00:32:44.359 Here she let the mask slip a little bit, demanding an English Bible 350 00:32:44.359 --> 00:32:47.400 in the right to recite the litany in English quote set forth in the King 351 00:32:47.519 --> 00:32:52.720 my Father's Days end quote. But when ordered to desist and conform fully to 352 00:32:52.799 --> 00:33:00.240 Catholicism. She did it. Mary was lenient, even imprudently so. Yet 353 00:33:00.279 --> 00:33:05.160 a full treason trial, which lacked unanimous support from the Privy Council, carried 354 00:33:05.240 --> 00:33:08.799 risks as well. In April, to the dismay and fury of the government, 355 00:33:09.279 --> 00:33:16.519 Nicholas Throckmorton was spectacularly acquitted of treason. It was almost unprecedented, frankly, 356 00:33:17.240 --> 00:33:22.039 but Throckmorton conducted a brilliant defense, challenging the selection of the jurors and 357 00:33:22.200 --> 00:33:28.759 arguing it was not treason under existing law quote to talk against the coming hither 358 00:33:28.839 --> 00:33:34.920 of the spaniards end quote angered by demonstrations of rejoicing. At this acquittal, 359 00:33:35.519 --> 00:33:39.480 Mary took to her bed and the jury was fined and imprisoned. On the 360 00:33:39.559 --> 00:33:44.680 day of the verdict, Wyatt's head was stolen from its place of public display, 361 00:33:45.359 --> 00:33:49.680 an indication that the traitor was considered by some to be a martyr. 362 00:33:50.759 --> 00:33:53.799 Now, as I mentioned previously, there was no mercy for Jane Gray, 363 00:33:53.880 --> 00:33:58.640 who had actually still been in the tower. Her sentence of death had been 364 00:33:58.680 --> 00:34:04.160 suspended since November. At this point it was promptly carried out. The young 365 00:34:04.240 --> 00:34:08.960 lady was only sixteen years old. Now, the battle at this point was 366 00:34:09.039 --> 00:34:15.960 far from over. Sure Mary would get the marriage that she wanted, but 367 00:34:15.000 --> 00:34:20.719 the notion that England would be quickly and easily reconciled to Rome remained very much 368 00:34:20.760 --> 00:34:23.800 a fanciful one, and as we were going to see next week, the 369 00:34:23.880 --> 00:34:30.840 reality was much much more complicated. If you've enjoyed the show, feel free 370 00:34:30.880 --> 00:34:36.159 to check out the links in the show notes below. The link there to 371 00:34:36.199 --> 00:34:39.519 the website that has all the additional content, and also have a link to 372 00:34:39.599 --> 00:34:45.159 a free trial of Western SIEV two point oh. 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