Chapter nine of Aviation Instructor's Handbook. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox
recordings are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please
visit LibriVox dot org. Aviation Instructor's Handbook f A A dash H DASH eighty
eighty three DASH nine A Chapter nine Risk Management Introduction. Pull the throttleback,
Lenore, a Certificated Flight Instructor c F I ordered the student, Jennifer,
as the revolutions per minute or p M climbed past two thousand on engine start
up, I did, I did both. Jennifer and Lenore grabbed the mixture
and pulled. The engine went from a deafening roar to silence. They looked
at each other. What happened, asked Jennifer. I don't know. Let's
check the engine, Leonora said. Ten minutes later, they had removed the
cowling from the SESSA one fifty two. A quick engine check gave them the
answer. The throttle rod end was not connected to the carburetor arm. No
bolt, no nut, just air between the rod end and the arm.
Jennifer looked at Lenore, What had this happened? In flight? What I
want to know? Leonora said, is how this happened at all. The
annual inspection was signed off yesterday. The previous day, the annual inspection had
been signed off after lengthy inspection by a local facility. Several mechanics had been
involved in the inspection, including the owner Slash A student who had installed a
headliner. The mechanic with the inspection authorization i A who signed off the annual
was supervising several annuals, so most of the maintenance was performed by other mechanics.
After the inspection, the engine had been run up according to the usual
post inspection procedures. The student and instructor had flown the airplane for a half
hour familiarization flight. The next day's engine start resulted in a runaway engine,
with the apparent cause due to the lack of a throttle rod end hardware being
safetyat. Three dificient areas in this annual inspection were identified by a round table
discussion group of Aircraft and power Plant A and P mechanics and the student.
These areas were lack of responsibility checklist misuse, complacency, lack of responsibility.
No one took responsibility for the entire inspection. The chances of something being overlooked
increase with an increase in the number of mechanics involved in an inspection. The
responsible person is removed from the actual procedure. The student remembers hearing the IA
ask one of the engine mechanics about the throttle. However, the question was
vague, the answer was vague, and the rod end was not safetiat checklist
misuse. All checklists have a line item regarding inspection of the engine controls for
rigging and safe. Perhaps the throttle rod end had been disconnected for maintenance after
the IA had signed off the control inspection. In that case, a discrepancy
should have been entered onto the discrepancy sheet stating reconnect and safety throttle rod end.
Complacency an insidious and hard to identify attitude. Each of the mechanics involved
in the incident thought someone else had inspected the throttle rod end. The IA
signed off the annual inspection because he had either asked the mechanics about the items
on the checklist, or in his frequent visits to the airplane, had inspected
the various items himself and decided that was good enough. Complacency crippled the mechanics
quality of work by removing any thoughts of double checking each other's work. While
a definite answer to the question of what happened remains a matter of speculation,
professional mechanics should heed warning signs of potential problems. The combination of a lengthy
inspection, numerous technicians, an overworked supervisor, a poor checklist, and vague
communication should raise a red flag of caution. Although the ultimate responsibility for the
safety of any flight rests with the pilot in command PIC, it is not
unreasonable for the PIC to assume that mechanics also take their responsibilities seriously. This
scenario underscores the need for safety risk management at all levels of aviation. Safety
risk management, a formal system of hazard identification and analysis is essential for keeping
risk at acceptable levels. Part of this process is selecting the appropriate controls to
mitigate the risk of the identified hazard. The primary objective of risk management is
accident prevention, which is achieved by proactively identifying, assessing, and eliminating or
controlling safety related hazards to acceptable levels. This chapter discusses safety risk management in
the aviation community, looking at it as preemptive rather than reactive. The principles
of risk management and the tools for teaching risk management in the flight training environment
are addressed in Chapter eight Techniques of Flight Instruction. Defining risk management. Risk
is defined as the probability and possible severity of accident or loss from exposure to
various hazards, including injury to people and loss of resources Figure nine Dash one.
All Federal Aviation Administration FAA operations in the United States involve risk and required
decisions that include risk assessment and risk management. Risk management, a formalized way
of thinking about these topics, is the logical process of weighing the potential costs
of risks against the possible benefits of allowing these risks to stand uncontrolled. Risk
management is a decision making process designed to identify hazards, systematically, assess degree
of risk, and determine the best course of action. Key terms are hazard
a present condition, event, object, or circumstance that could lead to or
contribute to an unplanned or undesired event, such as an accident. It is
a source of danger. For example, a nick in the propeller represents a
hazard. Risk the future impact of a hazard that is not controlled or illuminated.
It is the possibility of loss or injury. The level of risk is
measured by the number of people or resources affected exposure, the extent of possible
loss, severity, and the likelihood of loss probability. Safety freedom from those
conditions that can cause death, injury, occupational illness, or damage to or
loss of equipment or property, or damage to the environment. Note that absolute
safety is not possible because complete freedom from all hazardous conditions is not possible.
Therefore, safety is a relative term that implies a level of risk that is
both perceived and accepted. Figure nine Dash one text types of risk. Total
risk the sum of identified and unidentified risks identified risk risk, which has been
determined through various analysis techniques. The first task of system safety is to identify,
within practical limitations, all possible risks unidentified risk risk not yet identified.
Some unidentified risks are subsequently identified when a mishap occurs. Some risk is never
known. An acceptable risk risk which cannot be tolerated by the managing activity.
It is a subset of identified risk that must be eliminated or are controlled.
Acceptable risk. Acceptable risk is the part of identified risk that is allowed to
persist without further engineering or management action. Making. This decision is a difficult
yet necessary responsibility of the managing activity. This decision is made with full knowledge
that it is the user who is exposed to the risk. Residual risk.
Residual risk is the risk left over after system safety efforts have been fully employed.
It is not necessarily the same as acceptable risk. Residual risk is the
sum of acceptable risk and unidentified risk. This is the total risk passed on
to the user. End of Figure nine, Dash one text Principles of risk
management except no unnecessary risk. Unnecessary risk is that which carries no commensurate returns
in terms of benefits or opportunities. Everything involves risk. The most logical choices
for accomplishing an operation are those that meet all requirements with a minimum acceptable risk.
The corollary to this axiom is accept necessary risk required to complete the operation
or task. Successfully. Flying is impossible without risk, but unnecessary risk comes
without a corresponding return. If flying a new airplane for the first time,
a c FI might determine that the risk of making the flight in low instrument
flight rules if R conditions is unnecessary make risk decisions at the appropriate level.
Anyone can make a risk decision, However, the appropriate decision maker is the
person who can develop and implement risk controls. The decision maker must be authorized
to accept levels of risk typical of the planned operation. In a single pilot
situation, the pilot makes the decisi to accept certain levels of risk. In
the maintenance facility and aviation maintenance technician AMT may need to elevate decisions to the
next level in the chain of management upon determining that those controls available to him
or her will not reduce residual risk to an acceptable level. Accept risk when
benefits outweigh the costs. All identified benefits should be compared against all identified costs.
Even high risk endeavors may be undertaken when there is clear knowledge that the
sum of the benefits exceeds the sum of the costs. For example, in
any flying activity, it is necessary to accept some dewree of risk. A
day of good weather, for example, is a much better time to fly
an unfamiliar airplane for the first time than a day with low instrument flight rules.
If our conditions integrate risk management into planning at all levels, risks are
more easily assay and managed in the planning stages of an operation. The later
changes are made in the process of planning and executing an operation, the more
expensive and time consuming they become. Because risk is an unavoidable part of every
flight, safety requires the use of appropriate and effective risk management, not just
in the pre flight planning stage, but in all stages of the flight risk
management process. Risk management is a simple process which identifies operational hazards and takes
reasonable measures to reduce risk to personnel, equipment, and the mission. Step
one, identify the hazard. A hazard is defined as any real or potential
condition that can cause degradation, injury, illness, death, or damage to
or loss of equipment or property. Experience, common sense and specific analytical tools
help identify risks. Step two assess the risk. The assessment step is the
application of quantitative and qualitative measures to determine the level of risk associated with specific
hazards. This process defines the probability and severity of an accident that could result
from the hazards based upon the exposure of humans or assets to the hazards.
Step three analyze risk control measures. Investigate specific strategies and tools that reduce,
mitigate, or eliminate the risk. All risks have two components, one probability
of occurrence. Two severity of the hazard. Effective control measures reduce or eliminate
at least one of these. The analysis must take into account the overall costs
and benefits of remedial actions, providing alternative choices if possible. Step four make
control decisions. Identify the appropriate decision maker. That decision maker must choose the
best control or combination of controls based on the analysis of steps one and two.
Step five implement risk controls. A plan for applying the selected controls must
be formulated. The time, materials, and personnel needed to put these measures
in place must be provided. Step six supervise and review. Once controls are
in place, the process must be reevaluated periodically to insure their effectiveness. People
at every level must fulfill their respective roles to assure the controls are maintained over
time. The risk management process continues throughout the life cycle of the system,
mission, or activity implementing the risk management process. To derive maximum benefit from
this powerful tool, it must be used properly. The following principles are essential
apply the steps in sequence. Each step is a building block for the next
and must be completed before proceeding to the next. If a hazard identification step
is interrupted to focus on the control of a particular hazard. More important hazards
may be overlooked. Until all hazards are identified, the remainder of the process
is not effective. Maintain a balance in the process. All steps are important.
Allocate the time and resources to perform all apply the process in a cycle.
The supervise and review step should include a brand new look at the operation
being analyzed to see whether new hazards can be identified. Involve people in the
process, ensure that risk controls or mission supportive, and the people who must
do the work see them as positive actions. The people who are actually exposed
to risks usually know best what works and what does not. Level of risk
The level of risk posed by a given hazard is measured in terms of severity,
extent of the possible loss, probability, likelihood that a hazard will cause
a loss, Assessing risk. Assessment of risk is an important part of good
risk management. For example, the hazard of a nick in the propeller poses
a risk only if the airplane is flown. If the damaged prop is exposed
to the constant vibration of normal engine operation, there is a high risk that
it could fracture and cause catastrophic damage to the engine and or airframe and the
passengers. Every flight has hazards and some level of risks associated with it.
It is critical that pilots and especially students, are able to differentiate in advance
between a low risk flight and a high risk flight, and then establish a
review process and develop risk mitigation strategies to address flights through out that range.
For the single pilot, assessing risk is not as simple as it sounds.
For example, the pilot acts as his or her own quality control in making
decisions. If a fatigued pilot who has flown sixteen hours is asked if he
or she is too tired to continue flying, the answer may be no.
Most pilots are goal oriented, and when asked to accept a flight, there
is a tendency to deny personal limitations while adding weight to issues not germane to
the mission. For example, pilots of helicopter Emergency services EMS have been known
to make flight decisions that add significant weight to the patient's welfare. These pilots
add weight to intangible factors the patient in this case, and fail to appropriately
quantify actual hazards such as fatigue or weather when making flight decisions. The single
pilot who has no other crew member for consultation, must wrestle with the intangible
factors that draw one into a hazardous position. Therefore, he or she has
greater vulnerability than a full crew. Examining National Transportation Safety Board NTSB reports and
other accident research can help a pilot learn to assess risk more effectively. For
example, the accident rate during night VFR decreases by nearly fifty percent once a
pilot obtains one hundred hours and continues to decrease until the one follows an hour
level. The data suggests that for the first five hundred dollars, pilots flying
VFR at night might want to establish higher personal limitations than are required by the
regulations, and, if applicable, applying instrument flying skills to this environment.
Several risk assessment models are available to assist in the process of assessing risk.
The models, all taking slightly different approaches, seek a common goal of assessing
risk in an objective manner. The most basic tool is the risk matrix Figure
nine. Dash two assesses two items, the likelihood of an event occurring and
the consequences of that event. Likelihood of an event likelihood is nothing more than
taking a situation and determining the probability of its occurrence. It is rated as
probable, occasional, remote, or improbable. For example, a pilot is
flying from point A to point B fifty miles in marginal visual flight rules m
VFR conditions. The likelihood of encountering potential instrument meteorological conditions i MC is the
first question the pilot needs to answer. The Experiences of other pilots, coupled
with the four cast might cause the pilot to assign occasional to determine the probability
of encountering IMC. The following are guidelines for making assignments. Probable. An
event will occur several times. Occasional, an event will probably occur sometime Remote.
An event is unlikely to occur but is possible. Improbable. An event
is highly unlikely to occur. The severity of an event. The next element
is the severity or consequences of a pilot's actions. It can relate to injury
and or damage. If the individual in the example above is not an instrument
flight rules IFR pilot, what are the consequences of encountering inadvertent i AMC?
In this case, because the pilot is not IFR rated, the consequences are
catastrophic. The following are guidelines for this assignment. Catastrophic in fatalities total loss,
critical, severe injury, major damage, marginal minor injury, minor damage,
negligible less than minor injury, less than minor system damage. Simply connecting
the two factors are shown in Figure nine. Dash two indicates the risk is
high and the pilot must either not fly or fly only after finding ways to
mitigate, eliminate, or control the risk. Mitigating risk risk assessment is only
part of the equation. After determining the level of risk, the pilot needs
to mitigate their risk. For example, the pilot flying from point A to
point B fifty miles in m VFR conditions has several ways to reduce risk.
Wait for the weather to improve to good visual flight rules VFR conditions. Take
a pilot who is rated as an I of our pilot, delay the flight,
cancel the flight, drive I'm safe, I am safe checklist. One
of the best ways that single pilots can mitigate risk is to use the I'm
Safe checklist Figure nine, Dash three to determine physical and mental readiness for flying
one illness, Am I sick Illness is an obvious pilot risk. Two medication
Am I taking any medicines that might affect my judgment or make me drowsy?
Three? Stress? Am I under psychological pressure from the job? Do I
have money, health, or family problems? Stress causes concentration and performance problems.
While the regulations list medical conditions that require grounding, stress is not among
them. The pilot should consider the effects of stress on performance. Four Alcohol
Have I been drinking within eight hours? Within twenty four hours? As little
as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of beer or four ounces of wine
can impair flying skills. Alcohol also renders a pilot more susceptible to disorientation and
hypoxia. Five Fatigue Am I tired and not adequately rested? Fatigue continues to
be one of the most insidious hazards to flight safety, as it may not
be apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made. Six Eating Have I
eaten enough of the proper foods to keep adequately nourished during the entire flight The
pa VEE PAVE checklist. Another way to mitigate risk is to perceive hazards by
incorporating the PAVE Checklist into all stages of flight planning. The pilot divides the
risks of flight to four categories p Pilot in Command pic, A, aircraft
V, Environment and E External Pressures PAVE, which form part of the pilot's
decision making process. With the PAVE Checklist, pilots have a simple way to
remember each category to examine for risk prior to each flight. Once a pilot
identifies the risk of a flight, he or she needs to decide whether the
risk or combination of risks can be managed safely and successfully. If not,
make the decision to cancel the flight. If the pilot decides to continue with
the flight, he or she should develop strategies to mitigate the risks. One
way a pilot can control the risks is to set personal minimums for items in
each risk category. These are limits unique to that individual pilots current level of
experience and proficiency. For example, the aircraft may have a maximum crosswind component
of fifteen knots listed in the Aircraft Flight Manual AFM, and the pilot has
experienced with ten knots of direct crosswind, it could be unsafe to exceed ten
knots cross wind component without additional training. Therefore, the ten knots crosswind experience
level is that pilot's personal limitation until additional training with a certificated flight instructor CFI
provides the pilot with additional experience for flying in crosswinds that exceed ten knots.
One of the most important concepts that safe pilots understand is the difference between what
is legal in terms of the regulations and what is smart or safe in terms
of pilot experience and proficiency. P equals Pilot in command PIC. The pilot
is one of the risk factors in a fly. The pilot must ask am
I ready for this trip? In terms of experience, currency, physical and
emotional conditions. The I'm safe checklist, combined with proficiency, recency, and
currency, provides the answers A equals aircraft? What limitations will an aircraft impose
upon the trip? Ask the following questions, Is this the right aircraft for
the flight? Am I familiar with and current in this aircraft? Aircraft performance
figures and the AFM are based on a brand new aircraft flown by a professional
test pilot. Keep that in mind while assessing personal and aircraft performance. Is
this aircraft equipped for the flight. Instruments, lights, navigation, and communication
equipment adequate. Can this aircraft use the runways available for the trip with an
adequate margin of safety under the conditions to be flown? Can this aircraft carry
the plans load? Can this aircraft operate at the altitudes needed for the trip?
Does this aircraft have sufficient fuel capacity with reserves for trip legs planned?
Does the fuel quantity delivered match the fuel quantity ordered v equals environment Weather is
a major environmental consideration. Earlier, it was suggested pilots set their own personal
minimums, especially when it comes to weather. As pilots evaluate the weather for
a particular flight, they should consider the following. What of the current ceiling
and visibility in mountainous terrain? Consider having higher minimums for ceiling and visibility,
particularly if the terrain is unfamiliar. Consider the possibility that the weather may be
different than forecast, Have alternative plans, and be ready and willing to divert
should an unexpected change occur. Consider the winds at the airports being used and
the strength of the cross wind component. If flying in mountainous terrain, consider
whether there are strong winds aloft strong winds in mountainous terrain can cause severe turbulence
and down drafts, and can be very hazardous for aircraft even when there is
no other significant weather. Are there any thunderstorms present or forecast? If there
are clouds, is there any icing current or forecast? What does the temperature
dew point spread and the current temperature at altitude? Can descent be made safely
all along the route? If icing conditions are encountered. Is the pilot experienced
at operating the aircraft's de icing or anti icing equipment? Is this equipment in
good condition and functional for what icing conditions? Is the aircraft rated if any?
Evaluation of terrain is another important component of analyzing the flight environment. To
avoid terrain and obstacles, especially at night or in low visibility, determine safe
altitudes in advance by using altitudes shown on VFR and IR charts. During preflight
planning, use maximum elevation figures me efs, and other easily obtainable data to
minimize chances of an in flight collision with terrain or obstacles. Airport considerations include
what lights are available at the destination and alternate airports VASI slash, PAPI or
ils glide slope guidance. Is the terminal airport equipped with them? Are they
working? Will the pilot need to use the radio to activate the airport lights?
Check the notices to airmen NOTAMs, no tams for closed runways or airports.
Look for runway or beacon lights out near by towers, etc. Choose
the flight route wisely. An engine failure gives the nearby airports and terrain supreme
importance. Are there shorter or obstructed fields at the destination and or alternate airports.
Airspace considerations include if the trip is over remote areas or appropriate clothing,
water, and survival gear on board in the event of a forced landing.
If the trip includes flying over water or unpopulated areas with a chance of losing
visual reference to the horizon, the pilot must be current equipped and qualified to
fly IFR, check the airspace and temporary flight restrictions TFRs along the route of
flight. Night flying requires a special consideration. If the trip includes flying at
night, over water or unpopulated areas with the chance of losing visual reference to
the horizon, the pilot it must be prepared to fly. IFR, will
the flight conditions allow a safe emergency landing? At night preflight. All aircraft
lights interior and exterior for night flight carry at least two flashlights, one for
exterior preflight and a smaller one that can be dimmed and kept nearby. E
equals external pressures. External pressures or influences external to the flight that create a
sense of pressure to complete a flight, often at the expense of safety.
Factors that can be external pressures include the following someone waiting at the airport for
the flight's arrival, a passenger the pilot does not want to disappoint, the
desire to demonstrate pilot qualifications, the desire to impress someone. Probably the two
most dangerous words in aviation are watch this, the desire to satisfy a specific
personal goal, get home itis, get their itis, and let's go itis.
The pilot's general goal completion orientation, emotional pressure associated with acknowledging that skill
and experience levels may be lower than a pilot would like them to be.
Pride can be a powerful external factor. Management of external pressure is a single
most important key to risk management because it is the one risk factor category that
can cause a pilot to ignore all the other risk factors. External pressures put
time related pressure on the pilot and figure into a majority of accidents. The
use of personal standard operating procedures SOOPS is one way to manage external pressures.
The goal is to supply a release for the external pressures of a flight.
These procedures include, but are not limited, to allow time on a trip
for an extra fuel stop or to make an unexpected landing because of weather.
Have all plans for a late arrival or make backup airline reservations for must be
their trips. For really important trips, plan to leave early enough so that
there would still be time to drive to the destination. Advise those who are
waiting at the destination that the arrival may be delayed, know how to notify
them when delays are encountered. Manage passenger expectations. Make sure passengers know that
they might not arrive on a firm schedule, and if they must arrive at
a certain time, they should make alternative plans. Eliminate pressure to return home,
even on a casual day flight, by carrying a small overnight kit containing
prescriptions, contact lens, solutions, toiletries, or other necessities on every flight.
The key to managing external pressure is to be ready for and accept delays.
Remember that people get delayed when traveling on airb lines, driving a car,
or taking a bus. The pilot its goal is to manage risk,
not create hazards. During each flight, decisions must be made regarding events involving
interactions between the four risk elements pic, aircraft, environment, and external pressures.
The decision making process involves an evaluation of each of these risk elements to
achieve an accurate perception of the flight situation nine DASH four three P model for
Pilots. Risk management is a decision making process designing to perceive hazards, systematically,
assess the degree of risk associated with the hazard, and determine the best
course of action. See apen x F for example. The perceived process perform
three P model for Aeronautical Decision Making ADM offers a simple, practical and structured
way for pilots to manage risk figure nine DASH. To use the three P
model, the pilot perceives a given set of circumstances for a flight, processes
by evaluating the impact of those circumstances on flight safety performs by implementing the best
course of action. In the first step, the goal is to develop situational
awareness by perceiving hazards, which are present events, objects, or circumstances that
could contribute to an undesired future event. In this step, the pilot systematically
identifies and lists hazards associated with all aspects of the flight pilot, aircraft environment,
and external pressures. It is important to consider how individual hazards might combine.
Consider, for example, the hazard that arises when a new instrument pilot
with no experience in actual instrument conditions wants to make a cross country flight to
an airport with low ceilings in order to attend an important business meeting. In
the second step, the goal is to process this information to determine whether the
identified hazards constitute risk, which is defined as the future impact of a hazard
that is not controlled or eliminated. The degree of risk posed by a given
hazard can be measured in terms of exposure, number of people or resources affected,
severity, extent of possible loss, and probability the likelihood that a hazard
will cause a loss. If the hazard is low ceilings, for example,
the level of risk depends on a number of other factors, such as pilot
training and experience, aircraft equipment, and fuel capacity. In the third step,
the goal is to perform by taking action to eliminate hazards or mitigate risk,
and then continuously evaluate the outcome of this action. With the example of
low ceilings at destination, for instance, the pilot can perform good ADM by
selecting a suitable alternate, knowing where to find good weather and carrying sufficient fuel
to reach it. This course of action would mitigate the risk. The pilot
also has the option to eliminate it entirely by waiting for better weather. Once
the pilot has completed the three P decision process and selected a course of action,
the process begins again because the set of circumstances brought about by the course
of action requires analysis. The decision making process is a continuous loop of perceiving,
processing, and performing. It is never too early to start teaching students
about risk management. Using the three P model gives CFIS a tool to teach
them a structured, efficient and systematic way to identify hazards, assess risk,
and implement effective risk controls. Practicing risk management needs to be as automatic in
general aviation GA flying as basic aircraft control. Consider making the three P discussion
a standard feature of the preflight discussion. As is true for other flying skills.
Risk management habits are best developed through repetition and consistent adherence to specific procedures
hazard list. For aviation technicians, amts should learn about risk management early in
training. Also, instructors tasked with integrating risk management into instruction can turn to
hazard assessments that identify the safety risks associated with the facility being used, the
tools used in the procedure, and are the job being performed. The process
for identifying hazards can be accomplished through the use of checklists, lessons learned,
compliance inspections, SLASH audits, accidents SLASH near misses, regulatory developments, and
brain storming sessions. For example, aviation accident reports from the National Transportation Safety
Board and TSB can be used to generate discussions pertaining to faulty maintenance that led
to aircraft accidents. All available sources should be used for identifying, characterizing,
and controlling safety risks. The three P model can also be adapted for use
in a non flight environment, such as a maintenance facility. For example,
the AMT perceives a hazard, processes its impact on shop or personnel safety,
and then performs by implementing the best course of action to mitigate the perceived risk.
Pilot self assessment setting personal minimums is an important step in mitigating risk and
safe pilots know how to properly self assessed. For example, in the opening
scenario, the aircraft Merry plans to fly may have a maximum crosswind component of
fifteen knots listed in the Aircraft Flight Manual AFM, but she only has experience
with ten knots of direct crosswind. It could be unsafe to exceed a ten
knot cross wind component without additional training. Therefore, the ten knot crosswind experience
level is Mary's personal limitation until additional training with Daniel provides her with the additional
experience for flying and crosswinds that exceed ten knots. Pilots and training must be
taught that exercising good judgment begins prior to taking the controls of an aircraft.
Often pilots thoroughly check their aircraft to determine airworthiness, yet do not evaluate their
own fitness for flight. Just as a checklist is used when preflighting an aircraft,
a personal checklist based on such factors as experience, currency, and comfort
level can help determine if a pilot is prepared for a particular flight. The
FAA's Personal Minimums Checklist, located in Appendix D is an excellent tool for pilots
to use in self assessment. This checklist reflects the pavee pave approach to risk
mitigation discussed in the previous paragraphs. Worksheets for a more in depth risk assessment
are located in the FAA SLASH Industry Training Standards Personal and Weather Risk Assessment Guide,
located online at www dot FAA dot gov. This guide is designed to
assist pilots in developing personal, standardized procedures for accomplishing PIC responsibilities and in making
better preflight and in flight weather decisions. CFIS should stress that frequent review of
the Personal Guide keeps the information fresh and increases up pilot's ability to recognize the
conditions in which a new risk assessment should be made, a key element in
the decision making process. End of Part one of Chapter nine