Chapter eight of Aviation Instructor's Handbook by the FAA. This LibriVox recording is in
the public domain. Chapter eight Techniques of Flight Instruction Instruction Certificated Flight Instructor c
f I. Daniel decides his student, Mary has gained enough confidence in flying
that it is time for her to develop personal weather minimums. While researching the
subject at the Federal Aviation Administration FAA website, he locates several sources that provide
background information, such as the fact that statistically weather often poses some of the
greatest risks to General Aviation GA pilots, regardless of their experience level. He
also finds charts and a lesson plan he can use. Daniel's decision to help
Mary develop personal weather minimums reflects a key component of the flight instructor's job,
providing the student with the tools to insure safe during a flight. Every flight
instructor can agree that everyone wants to be safe, But what does safety really
mean? How can a flight instructor ensure the safety of flight training activities and
also train clients to operate their aircraft safely after they leave the relatively protected flight
training environment. According to one definition, safety is the freedom from conditions that
can cause death, injury or illness, damage to or loss of equipment or
property, or damage to the environment. FAA regulations are intended to promote safety
by eliminating or mitigating conditions that can cause death, injury, or damage.
These regulations are comprehensive, but there has been increasing recognition that even the strictest
compliance with regulations may not be sufficient to guarantee safety. Rules and regulations are
designed to address known or suspected conditions detrimental to safety, but there is always
the probability that some new combination of circumstances not contemplated by the regulations will arise.
The recognition of aviation training and flight operations has led to a system approach
to aviation safety. Since flight instructors or a critical part of the aviation safety
system, this chapter introduces system safety, aeronautical decision making ADM, risk management,
situational awareness, and single pilot resource management SRM in the modern flight training
environment. It also provides methods flight instructors can teach students to use practical risk
management tools and discusses how to evaluate student decision making. The chapter begins with
practical strategies flight instructors can use to enhance their instruction the demonstration performance training delivery,
method of flight instruction, integrated flight instruction, positive exchange of flight controls,
use of astractions, obstacles to learning encountered during flight training, and how
to evaluate students after an intensive look at ADM. It closes with a discussion
of CFI recommendations and endorsements. Flight instructor qualifications. A CFI must be thoroughly
familiar with the functions, characteristics, and proper use of all flight instruments,
avionics, and other aircraft systems being used for training. This is especially important
due to the wide variety of Global Positioning System GPS and glass panel displays.
It is the personal responsibility of each flight instructor to maintain familiarity with current pilot
training techniques and certification requirements. This may be done by frequent review of new
periodicals and technical publications, personal contacts with FAA inspectors and Designated Pilot Examiners DPE,
and by participation in pilot and flight instructor clinics. Additional information can be
obtained from veteran flight instructors. Figure eight Dash one. The application of outmoded
instructional procedures or the preparation of students using obsolete certification requirements is inexcusable. Practical
flight instructor strategies during all phases of flight training, seafis should remember they are
role models for the student. The flight instructor should demonstrate good aviation sense at
all times before the flight, Discuss safety and importance of proper preflight and use
of the checklist During flight. Prioritize the tasks of aviating, navigating and communicating,
and still importance of sea and avoid in the student. During landing,
conduct stabilized approaches, maintain desired air speed on final Demonstrate good judgment for go
arounds, right turbulence, traffic and ragin avoidance. Use ADM to correct faulty
approaches and landing errors. Make power off stall warning blaring on centerline touchdowns in
the first third of runway. Always remember safety is paramount. Flight instructors have
the responsibility of producing the safest pilots possible. For that reason, cfis should
encourage each student to learn as much as he or she is capable of and
keep raising the bar. When introducing lesson tasks, Flight instructors should not introduce
the minimum acceptable standards for passing the check ride. The Practical Test Standard PTS
is not a teaching tool, it is a testing tool. The overall focus
of flight training should be on education, learning and understanding why the standards are
there and how they were set. The minimum standards to pass the check ride
should not be introduced until the three hours of preparation for the check ride.
Obstacles to learning during flight and struck. Certain obstacles are common to flight instruction
and may apply directly to the student's attitude, physical condition, and psychological makeup.
These include, but are not limited to, feeling of unfair treatment,
in patience to proceed to more interesting operations, worry or lack of interest,
physical discomfort, illness, fatigue and dehydration, apathy due to inadequate instruction,
anxiety unfair treatment. Students who believe their instruction is inadequate or that their efforts
are not conscientiously considered and evaluated do not learn well. In addition, their
motivation suffers, no matter how intent they are on learning to fly. Motivation
also declines when a student believes the instructor is making unreasonable demands for performance and
progress. Figure eight two. Assignment of goals the student considers difficult but possible,
usually provides a challenge and promotes learning. In a typical flight lesson,
reasonable goals are listed in the lesson objectives and the desired levels of proficiency for
the goals, or included in statements that contain completion standards. Impatience Impatience is
a greater deterrent to learning pilot skills than is generally recognized. For a student.
This may take the form of a desire to make an early solo flight
or to set out on cross country flights before the basic elements of flight have
been learned. The impatient student fails to understand the need for preliminary training and
seeks only the ultimate objective without considering the means necessary to reach it. With
every complex human endeavor, it is necessary to master the basics if the whole
task is to be performed competently and safely. The instructor can correct student impatience
by presenting the necessary preliminary training one step at a time, with clearly stated
goals for each step. The procedures and elements mastered in each step should be
clearly identified in explaining or demonstrating the performance of the subsequent step. Impatience can
result from instruction keyed to the pace of a slow learner when it is applied
to a motivated, fast learner. It is just as important that a student
be advanced to the subsequent step as soon as one goal has been attained as
it is to complete each step before the next one is undertaken. Disinterest grows
rapidly when unnecessary repetition and drill are requested on operations that have already been adequately
learned. Worry or lack of interest Worry or lack of interest as a detrimental
effect on learning. Students who are worried or emotionally upset are not ready to
learn and derive little benefit from instruction. Worry or distraction may be due to
student concerns about progress in the training course, or may stem from circumstances completely
unrelated to their instruction. Significant emotional upsets may be due to personal problems,
psychiatric disturbances, or a dislike of the training program or the instructor. The
experiences of students outside their training activities affect behavior and performance in training. The
two cannot be separated. When students begin flight training, they bring with them
their interests, enthusiasms, fears, and troubles. The instructor cannot be responsible
for these outside diversions, but cannot ignore them because they have a critical effect
on the learning process. Instruction must be keyed on the utilization of the interests
and enthusiasm students bring with them, and to diverting their attention from their worries
and troubles to learning the task at hand. This is admittedly difficult, but
must be accomplished if learning is to proceed at a normal rate. Worries and
emotional upsets that result from a flight training course can be identified and a rest
These problems are often due to inadequacies of the course or of the instructor.
The most effective cure is prevention. The instructor must be alert and ensure students
understand the objectives of each step of their training, and that they know at
the completion of each lesson exactly how well they have progressed in what deficiencies are
apparent. Discouragement and emotional upsets are rare when students feel that nothing is being
withheld from them or is being neglected in their training. Physical discomfort, illness,
fatigue and dehydration. Physical discomfort, illness, and fatigue will materially slow
the rate of learning during both classroom instruction and flight training. Students who are
not completely at ease and whose attention is diverted by discomforts such as the extremes
of temperature, poor ventilation, inadequate lighting, or noise and confusion cannot learn
at a normal rate. This is true no matter how diligent they attempt to
apply themselves to the learning task. A minor illness, such as a cold,
major illness, or injury interferes with a normal rate of training. This
is especially important for flight instruction. Most illnesses adversely affect the acuteness of vision,
hearing, and feeling, all of which are essential to correct performance.
Airsickness can be a great deterrent to flight instruction. A student who is air
sick or bothered with incipient airsickness is incapable of learning at a normal rate.
There is no sure cure for air sickness, but resistance or immunity usually can
be developed in a relatively short period of time. An instructional flight should be
terminated as soon as an incipient illness is experienced. As the student develops immunity,
flights can be increased in length until normal flight periods are practicable. Keeping
students interested and occupied during flight is a deterrent to airsickness. They are much
less apt to become airsick while operating the controls themselves. Rough air and unexpected
abrupt maneuvers tend to increase the chances of airsickness. Tension and apprehension apparently contribute
to airage sickness and should be avoided. Fatigue. Fatigue is one of the
most treacherous hazards to flight safety, as it may not be apparent to a
pilot until serious errors are made. Fatigue can be either acute, short term
or chronic long term. Acute fatigue, a normal occurrence of everyday living,
is the tirdness felt after long periods of physical and mental strain, including strenuous
muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workout, strong emotional pressure, monotony,
and lack of sleep. Acute fatigue caused by training operations may be physical or
mental, or both. Is not necessarily a function of physical robustus or mental
acuity. The amount of training any student can absorb without incurring debilitating fatigue varies.
Generally speaking, complex operations tend to induce fatigue more rapidly than in simpler
procedures do regardless of the physical effort involved. Fatigue is the primary consideration in
determining the length and frequency of flight instruction. Periods and flight instruction should be
continued only as long as the student is alert, receptive to instruction, and
is performing at a level consistent with experience. It is important for a CFI
to be able to detect fatigue, both in assessing a student's substandard performance early
in a lesson and also in recognizing the deterioration of performance. If fatigue occurs
as a result of application to a learning task, the student should be given
our break in instruction and practice. A CFI who is familiar with the signs
indicative to acute fatigue will be more aware if the student is experiencing them.
The deficiencies listed below are apparent to others before the individual notices any physical signs
of fatigue. Acute fatigue is characterized by inattention, distractability, errors in timing,
neglect of secondary tasks, loss of accuracy and control, lack of awareness
of error, accumulation, irritability. Another form of fatigue is chronic fatigue,
which occurs when there is not enough time for full recovery from repeated episodes of
acute fatigue. Chronic fatigues underlying cause is generally not rest related and may have
deeper points of origin. Therefore, rest alone may not resolve chronic fatigue.
Chronic fatigue is a combination of both physiological problems and psychological issues. Psychological problems
such as financial, home life, or related stresses cause a lack of qualified
rest that is only solved by mitigating the underlying problems. Before the fatigue is
solved, without resolution, human performance continues to fall off and judgment becomes impaired
so that unwarranted risks may be taken. Recovery from chronic fatigue requires a prolonged
and deliberate solution. In either case, Unless adequate precautions are taken, personal
performance could be impaired and adversely affect pilot judgment and decision making. Dehydration and
heat stroke. Dehydration is the term given to critical loss of water from the
body. Dehydration reduces a pilot's level of alertness, producing a subsequent slowing of
decision making processes or even the inability to control the aircraft. The first noticeable
effect of dehydration is fatigue, which in turn makes top physical and mental performance
difficult, if not impossible. Flying for long periods in hot summer temperatures or
at high altitudes increases susceptibility to dehydration, since dry air at high altitudes tends
to increase the rate of water loss from the body if this fluid is not
replaced. Fatigue presses to dizziness, weakness, nausea, tingling of hands and
feet, abdominal cramps, and extreme thirst. Heat stroke is a condition caused
by any inability of the body to control its temperature. Onset of this condition
may be recognized by the symptoms of dehydration, but also has been known to
be recognized only by complete collapse. To prevent these symptoms, it is recommended
that an ample supply of water be carried and used at frequent intervals on any
long flight, whether the pilot is thirsty or not. If the airplane has
a canopy or roof window, wearing light colored porous clothing and a hat helps
provide protection from the sun. Keeping the flight deck well ventilated aids in dissipating
excess heat. Apathy due to inadequate instruction. Students can become apathetic when they
recognize that the instructor has made inadequate preparations for the instruction being given, or
when the instruction appears to be deficient, contradictory, or insincere. To hold
the student's interest and to maintain the motivation necessary for efficient learning, well planned,
appropriate and accurate instruction must be provided. Nothing destroys a student's interest as
quickly as poorly organized period of instruction. Even an inexperienced student realizes immediately when
the instructor has failed to prepare for a lesson Figure eight, Dash three.
Instruction may be overly explicit and so elementary it fails to hold student interest,
or it may be so general or complicated that it fails to evoke the interest
necessary for effective learning. To be effective, the instructor must teach for the
level of the student. Their presentation must be adjusted to be meaningful to the
person for whom it is intended. For example, instruction in the preflight inspection
of an aircraft should be presented quite differently for a student who is a skilled
aircraft maintenance technician a MT, compared to the instruction on the same operation for
a student with no previous aeronautical experience. The instruction needed in each case is
the same, but a presentation meaningful to one of these students might not be
appropriate for the other. Poor instructional presentations may result not only from poor preparation,
but also from distracting mannerisms, personal untidiness, or the appearance of irritation
with the student. Creating the impression of talking down to the student is one
of the fastest ways for an instructor to lose a student confidence and attention.
Once the instructor loses student confidence, it is difficult to regain and the learning
rate is unnecessarily diminished. Anxiety. Student anxiety may place additional burdens on the
instructor. This frequently limits the student's perceptive ability and retards the development of insights.
The student must be comfortable, confident in the instructor and the aircraft,
and at ease if effective learning is to occur. Providing this atmosphere for learning
is one of the first and most important tasks of the instructor. Although doing
so may be difficult at first, successive accomplishment of recognizable goals and avoidance of
alarming occurrences or situations will rapidly ease the student's mind. This is true of
all flight students, but special handling by the instructor may be required for students
who are obviously anxious or uncomfortable. Demonstration performance training delivery method. The demonstration
performance training delivery method was discussed briefly in chapter four the Teaching Process, but
the following in depth discussion is geared to the flight instructor. This training method
has been in use for a long time and is very effective in teaching kinesthetic
skills, so flight instructors find it valuable in teaching procedures and maneuvers. The
demonstration performance method is divided into four phases, explanation, demonstration, student performance
with instructor supervision, and evaluation Figure eight Dash four. Explanation phase, the
flight instructure needs to be well prepared and highly organized. If complex maneuvers and
procedures are to be taught effectively, the student must be intellectually and psychologically ready
for the learning activity. The explanation phase is accomplished prior to the flight lesson
with a discussion of lesson objectives and completion standards, as well as a thorough
preflight briefing. Explanations must be clear pertinent to the objectives of the particular lesson,
to be presented and based on the known experiences and knowledge of the students.
Students need to know not only what they will learn, but also how
they will learn it, that is, how lesson will proceed and how they
will be evaluated. In teaching a skill, the instructor must convey to the
students the precise actions they are to perform. In addition to the necessary steps,
the instructor should describe the end result of these efforts. The explanation phase
also should include coverage of appropriate safety procedures. Before leaving this phase, the
instructor should encourage students to ask questions about any step of the procedure that they
do not understand. Demonstration phase, the instructor must show students the actions necessary
to perform a skill. As little extraneous activity as possible should be included in
the demonstration if students are to clearly understand that the instructor is accurately performing the
actions previously explained. If due to some unanticipated circumstances, the demostration does not
closely conform to the explanation, this deviation should be immediately acknowledged and explained.
Student performance and instructor supervision phases as discussed in chapter four. These two phases
involve separate actions that are performed concurrently. The first of these phases is the
students performance the physical or mental skills that have been explained and demonstrated. The
second activity is the instructor's supervision. Student performance requires students to act and do.
To learn skills, students must practice. The instructor must therefore allot enough
time for meaningful student activity. Through doing, students learn to follow correct procedures
and to reach established standards. It is important that students be given an opportunity
to perform the skill as soon as possible. After a demonstration, Then the
instructor reviews what has been covered during the instructional flight and determines to what extent
the student has met the objectives outlined during the preflight discussion. The instructor should
be satisfied that the student is well prepaired and understands the task. Before starting,
the instructor observes as the student performs and then makes appropriate comments evaluation phase.
In this phase, the instructor traditionally evaluates student performance, records the student's
performance, and verbally advises the student of the progress made toward the objectives.
Regardless of how well a skill is taught, there may still be performance deficiencies.
When pointing out areas that need improvement, offer concrete suggestions that help,
if possible, avoid ending the evaluation on a negative note, as discussed in
chapter five. Assessment. Collaborative assessment or learner centered grading LCG is a form
of authentic assessment currently used in aviation training with problem based learning PBL. PBL
structures the less to confront the students with problems that are encountered in real life
and forces them to reach real world solutions. Scenario based training SBT, a
type of PBL, uses a highly structured script of real world experiences to address
aviation training objectives in an operational environment. Collaborative assessment is used to evaluate whether
certain learning criteria were met during the SBT. Collaborative assessment includes two parts,
learner self assessment and a detailed assessment by the flight instructor. The purpose of
the self assessment is to stimulate growth in the learner's thought processes and in turn
behaviors. The self assessment is followed by an in depth discussion between the instructor
and the student, which compares the instructor's assessment to the student's self assessment the
telling and doing technique the demonstration performance method can be applied to the telling and
doing technique of flight instruction in three steps. However, the telling and doing
technique includes specific variations for flight instruction Figure eight five. Instructor tells instructor does.
First, the flight instructure gives a carefully planned demonstration of the procedure or
maneuver with accompanying verbal explanation. While demonstrating in flight maneuvers, the instructor should
explain the required power settings, aircraft attitudes, and describe any other pertinent factors
that may apply. This is the only step in which the student plays a
passive role. It is important for the demonstration to conform to the explanation as
closely as possible. In addition, it should be demonstrated in the same sequence
in which it was explained, so as to avoid confusion and provide reinforcement.
Since students generally imitate the instructor's performance, the instructor must demonstrate the skill exactly
the way the students are expected to practice it, including all safety procedures that
the students must follow. If due to some unanticipated circumstances, the demonstration does
not closely conformed to the explanation. This deviation should be immediately acknowledged and explained.
Most physical skills lend themselves to a sequential pattern, where the skill is
explained the same step by step order normally used to perform it. When the
skill being taught is related to previously learned procedures or maneuvers, the known to
unknown strategy may be used effectively when teaching more than one skill at a time.
The simple to complex strategy works well. By starting with the simplest skill,
The student gains confidence and is less likely to become frustrated when faced with
building skills that are more complex. Another consideration in this phase is the language
used. Instructors should attempt to avoid unnecessary jargon and technical terms that their students
do not know. Instructors should also take care to clearly describe the actions students
are expected to perform. Communication is the key. It is neither appropriate nor
effective for instructors to try to impress students with their expertise by using language that
is unnecessarily complicated. As an example, a level turn might be demonstrated and
described by the instructor in the following way use outside visual references and monitor the
flight instruments. After clearing the airspace around the aircraft, add power, slightly,
turn the aircraft to the desired direction, and apply a slight amount of
back pressure on the yoke to maintain altitude. Maintain coordinated flight by applying the
rudder in the direction of the turn. Remember, the ailerons control the roll
rate as well as the angle of bank. The rate at which the aircraft
rolls depends on how much aileron deflection is used. How far the aircraft rolls.
Steepness of the bank depends on how long the ailerons are deflected. Since
the aircraft continues to roll as long as the ailerons are deflect the desired angle
of bank is reached, neutralize the ailerons and trim as appropriate. Lead the
rollout by approximately one half the number of degrees of the angle of bank.
Use coordinated aileron and rudder control pressures simultaneously begin releasing the back pressure, so
aileron, rudder and elevator pressures are neutralized when the aircraft reaches the wings level
position. Leading the rollout heading by one half the bank angle is a good
rule of thumb for initial training. However, keep in mind that the required
amount of lead really depends on the type of turn, turn rate and rollout
rate. As a pilot gains experience, he or she will develop a consistent
roll in and rollout technique for various types of turns. Upon reaching a wings
level attitude, reduce power and trim to remove control pressures. Student tells instructor
does. Second, the student tells as the instructor does. In this step,
the student actually plays the role of instructor, telling the instructor what to
do and how to do it. Two benefits accrue from this step. The
student, being freed from the need to concentrate on performance of the maneuver and
from concerned about its outcome, is able to organize his or her thoughts regarding
the steps involved and the techniques to be used. In the process of explaining
the maneuver. As the instructor performs it, perceptions begin to develop into insights.
Mental habits begin to form with repetition of the instructions previously received. Plus,
the instructor is able to evaluate the student's understanding of the factors involved in
performance of the maneuver. According to the principle of primacy, it is important
for the instructor to make sure the student gets it right the first time.
The student should also understand the correct sequence and be aware of safety precautions for
each procedure or maneuver. If a misunderstanding exists, it can be corrected before
the student becomes absorbed in controlling the aircraft. Student tells a student does.
Application is the third step of this method. This is where learning takes place
and where performance habits are formed. If the student has been adequately prepared and
the procedure or maneuver fully explained and demonstrated, meaningful learning occurs. The instructor
should be alert during the student's practice to detect any errors in technique and to
prevent the formation of vaulty habits. At the same time, the students should
be encouraged to think about what to do during the performance of a maneuver until
it becomes habitual. In this step, the thinking can be done verbally.
This focuses concentration on the task to be accomplished, so the total involvement in
the maneuver is fostered. All of the student's physical and mental faculties are brought
into play. The instructor should be aware of the student's thought processes, it
is easy to determine whether where an error is induced by a misconception or by
a simple lack of motor skills. Therefore, in addition to forcing total concentration
on the part of the student, this method provides a means for keeping the
instructor aware of what the student is thinking. The student is not only learning
to do something, but he or she is also learning a self teaching process
that is highly desirable in development of a skill. The exact procedures that the
instructor should use during student practice depends on factors such as the student's proficiency level,
the type of maneuver, and the stage of training. The instructor must
exercise good judgment to decide how much control to use. With potentially hazardous or
difficult maneuvers, the instructor should be alert and ready to take control at any
time. This is especially true during a student's first attempt at a particular maneuver.
On the other hand, if a student is progressing normally, the instructor
should avoid unnecessary interruptions are too much assistant. A typical test of how much
control is needed often occurs during a student's first few attempts to land an aircraft,
the instructor must quickly evaluate the student's need for help and not hesitate to
take control if required. At the same time, a students should be allowed
to practice the entire maneuver often enough to achieve the level of proficiency established in
the lesson objectives. Since this is a learning phase rather than an evaluation phase
of the training, errors or unsafe practices should be identified and corrected in a
positive and timely way. In some cases, the student is not able to
meet the proficiency level specified in the lesson objectives within the allotted time. When
this occurs, the instructor should be prepared to schedule additional training. Positive exchange
of flight controls. Positive exchange of flight controls is an integral part of flight
training is especially critical during the demonstration performance method of flight instruction due to the
importance of this subject. The following discussion provides guidance on the recommended procedure to
use with a positive exchange of flight controls between pilots when operating an aircraft.
Background incident slash accident statistics indicate a need to place additional emphasis on the exchange
of control of an airplane by pilots. Numerous accidents have occurred due to a
lack of communication or misunderstanding regarding who it actual control of the aircraft, particularly
between students and flight instructors. Establishing the following procedure during initial training will insure
the formation of a habit pattern that should stay with students throughout their flying careers.
Procedure during flight training there must always be a clear understanding between students and
flight instructors about who has control of the aircraft. The preflight briefing should include
procedures for the exchange of flight controls. A positive three step process in the
exchange of flight controls between pilots is a proven procedure and one that is strongly
recommended. When an instructor is teaching a maneuver to a student, the instructor
normally demonstrates the maneuver first, then has the student follow along on the controls
during a demonstration, and finally, the student performs the maneuver with the instructor
following along on the controls Figure eight Dash six Figure eight Dash six text.
During this procedure, a visual check is recommended to see that the other person
actually has the flight controls. When returning the controls to the instructor. The
students should follow the same procedure the instructor used when giving the control to the
student. The student should stay on the controls and keep flying the aircraft until
the instructor says I have the controls. There should never be any doubt about
who is flying the aircraft. Positive exchange of flight controls one. When the
instructor wishes the student to take control of the aircraft, the instructor says to
the student, you have the flight controls. Two. The student acknowledges immediately
by saying I have the flight controls. Three. The flight instructor again says,
you have the flight controls end of Figure eight, Dash six. Flight
instructors should always guard the controls and be prepared to take control of the aircraft
when necessary. The instructors should take the controls and comply announce I have the
flight controls. If an instructor allows a student to remain on the controls,
the instructor may not have full and effective control of the aircraft. Anxious students
can be incredibly strong and usually exhibit reactions inappropriate to the situation. If a
recovery is necessary, there is absolutely nothing to be gained by having the student
on the controls and having to fight for control of the aircraft. Students should
never be allowed to exceed the flight instructor's limits. Flight instructors should not exceed
their own ability to perceive a problem, decide on the course of action,
and physically react within their ability to fly. The Aircraft Sterile Cockpit Rule,
commonly known as the Sterile Cockpit Rule, Title fourteen of the Code of Federal
Regulations fourteen CFR, Section one twenty one point five four two requires flight members
to refrain from non essential activities during the critical phases of flight as defined in
the regulation. Critical phases of flight or all ground operations involving taxi takeoff and
landing, and all other operations below ten thousand feet except crews flight non essential
activities, including such activities as eating, reading a newspaper, or chatting.
A series of aircraft accidents caused by flight crews who are distracted from their flight
duties during critical phases of flight caused the FAA to propose the rule. While
the regulation grew out of accidents in the airline industry, it holds true for
the entire aviation community. Pilots can improve flight safety significantly by reducing distractions in
critical phases of flight is important the flight instructure not only teach the concept of
a sterile cock pit, but also model such behavior during flight instruction. Use
of distractions. National Transportation Safety Board NTSB statistics revealed that most stall slash spin
accidents occurred when the pilot's attention was diverted from the primary task of flying the
aircraft. Sixty percent of stalls spin accidents occurred during takeoff and landing, and
twenty percent were preceded by engine failure. Preoccupation inside or outside the flight deck
while changing aircraft configuration or trim maneuvering to avoid other traffic, or clearing hazardous
obstacles during takeoff in climb could create a potential stall slash spin situation. The
intentional practice of stalls and spins seldom resulted in an accident. The real danger
was inadvertent stalls induced by distractions during routine flight situations. Pilots at all skill
levels should be aware of the increased risk of entering into an inadvertent stall or
spin while performing tasks that are secondary to controlling the aircraft. The FAA has
established a policy for use of certain distractions on practical tests for pilot certification.
The purpose is to determine that applicants possess the skills required to cope with distractions
while maintaining the degree of aircraft control required for safe flight. The most effective
training is a simulation of scenarios that can lead to inadvertent stalls by creating distractions
while a student is practicing certain maneuvers. Instructor responsibilities include teaching the student to
divide his or her attention between the distracting task and maintaining control of the aircraft.
The following are examples of distractions that can be used for this training.
Drop a pencil, ask the student to pick it up. Ask the student
to determine a heading to an airport using a chart. Ask the student to
reset the clock. Ask the student to get something from the back seat.
Ask the student to read the outside air temperature. Ask the student to call
the Automated Flight Service Station a f SS for weather information. Ask the student
to compute true airspeed with a flight computer. Ask the student to identify terrain
or objects on the ground. Ask the student to identify a field suitable for
a forest landing. Have the student climb two hundred feet and maintain altitude,
and then descend two hundred feet and maintain altitude, have the student reverse course
after a series of s turns. It is a flight instructor's responsibility to teach
the student how to take charge during a flight. A pilot in command p
i C must know when to tell any passengers, even a DPE, when
the p i C finds actions in the aircraft that distract and interfere with the
safe conduct of the flight. Integrated flight instruction Integrated flight instruction is flight instruction
during which students are taught to perform flight maneuvers both by outside visual references and
by reference to flight instruments. For this type of instruction to be fully effective,
the use of instrument references should begin the first time each new maneuver is
introduced. No distinction in the pallette's operation of the flight controls is permitted regardless
of whether outside references or instrument indications are used for the performance of the maneuver.
When this training technique is used, Instruction in the control of an aircraft
by outside visual references is integrated with instruction and the use of flight instrument indications
for the same operations. Development of habit patterns. It is important for the
student to establish the habit of observing and relying on flight instruments from the beginning
of flight training. It is equally important for the student to learn the feel
of the airplane while conducting maneuvers, such as being able to feel when the
airplane is out of trim or in a nose high or nose low attitude.
Students who have been required to perform all flight maneuvers by reference to instruments as
well as by outside references developed from the start. The habit of continuously monitoring
their own and the aircraft's performance. The early establishment of proper habits of instrument
cross check, instrument interpretation, and aircraft control is highly useful to the student.
The habitual attention to instrument indications leads to improved landings because of more precise
air speed control. Effective use of instruments also results in superior cross country navigation,
better coordination, and generally a better overall pilot competency level. General aviation
accident reports provide ample support for the belief that reference to flight instruments is important
to safety. The safety record of pilots who hold ratings is significantly better than
that of pilots with comparable flight time who have never received formal flight training for
an instrument rating. Pilots in training who have been required to perform all normal
flight maneuvers by reference to instruments as well as by outside references, will develop
from the start the habit of continuously monitoring their own and the aircraft's performance.
The early establishment of proper habits of instrument cross check, instrument interpretation, and
aircraft control is highly useful to the student. The habits formed at this time
also give him or her a firm foundation for the later training of an instrument
rating operating efficiency. As students become proficient in monitoring and correcting their own flight
technique by reference to flight instruments, the performance obtained from an aircraft increases noticeably.
This is particularly true of modern complex or high performance aircraft, which are
responsive to the use of correct operating air speeds. The use of correct power
settings and climb speeds, and the accurate control of headings during climbs result in
a measurable increase in climb performance. Holding precise headings and altitudes in cruising flight
definitely increases average cruising performance. The use of Integrated flight instruction provides the student
with the ability to control an aircraft in flight for limited periods if outside references
are lost in an emergency. This ability could save the pilot's life and those
of the passengers. During the conduct of integrated flight training, the flight instructor
must emphasize to the students that the introduction to the use of flight instruments does
not prepare them for operations in marginal weather or instrument meteorological conditions IMC. The
possible consequences both to themselves and to others of experiments with flight operations and weather
conditions below visual flight roles VFR minimums before they are instrument rated should be constantly
impressed on the students. According to NTSB accident data, in flight encounters with
weather attempting VFR flight into IMC is one of the most lethal types of GA
flying procedures. Integrated flight instruction begins with the first briefing on the function of
the flight controls. This briefing includes the instrument indications to be expected, as
well as the outside references to be used to control the attitude of the aircraft.
Each new maneuver is introduced using both outside and instrument references. With students
developing the ability to maneuver an aircraft equally as well by instrument or outside references,
they naturally accept the fact that the manipulation of the flight controls is identical,
regardless of which references are used to determine the attitude of the aircraft.
This practice should continue throughout the flight instruction for all maneuvers. To fully achieve
the demonstrated benefits of this type of training, the use of visual and instrument
references must be constantly integrated throughout the training. Failure to do so lengthens the
flight instruction necessary for the student to achieve the competency required for the private pilot
certificate. See and avoid. From the start of flight training, the instructor
must insure students develop the habit of looking for other air traffic at all times.
If students believe the instructor assumes all responsibility for scanning and collision avoidance procedures,
they do not develop the habit of maintaining a constant vigilance, which is
essential to safety. Any observed tendency of a student to enter flight maneuvers without
first making a careful check for other air traffic must be corrected immediately. Recent
studies of mid air collisions determined that flight instructors were on board the aircraft in
thirty seven percent of the accidents in the study. Most of the aircraft involved
in collisions were engaged in recreational flying, not on any type of flight plane.
Most midair collisions occur in VFR weather conditions during weekend daylight hours. The
vast majority of accidents occurred at our near non towered airports and in altitudes below
one thousand feet. Pilots of all experienced levels were involved in mid air collisions,
from pilots on their first solo to twenty thousand hour veterans. Most collisions
occur in daylight with visibility greater than three miles. It is imperative to introduce
fourteen CFR Section ninety one point one one three right of way rules to the
student practice the c and avoid concept at all times, regardless of whether the
training is conducted under VFR or instrument flight rules IFR. For more information on
how to reduce the odds of becoming involved in a midair collision, c www
dot FAA dot gov, slash about slash Office Underscore ORGLAS Headquarters Underscore offices,
slash Ato, slash Tracon, t R A C O N, slash Anchorage,
slash Pilots, Underscore Info, slash MCA, slash end of part one
of Chapter eight,